Crime,antisocial personality and pathological gambling

To investigate the hypothesized causal relationship between pathological gambling and gambling-related illegal behaviors, 77 patients seeking behavioral treatment for excessive gambling and 32 members of Gamblers Anonymous were administered a structured interview schedule. Data on the incidence, nature and extent of both gambling and non-gambling related illegal behaviors was obtained and DSM-III (A.P.A., 1980) criteria for Antisocial personality were used as the measure of sociopathy.Of the sample, 54.1% admitted to a gambling related offense and 21.1% were charged. Results showed that 14.6% met DSM-III criteria for Antisocial Personality, Four subgroups were subsequently identified; gamblers who committed no offense (36.7%), gambling only offenses (40.4%), non-gambling only offenses (9.2%) or both gambling and non-gambling offenses (13.7%). Significantly more subjects from the gambling plus non-gambling related offenses subgroup were classified as antisocial personalities.Of pathological gamblers who committed offenses, two thirds reportedly did so as a direct consequence of gambling induced problems. Subjects reporting gambling-only related offenses showed a significant increase in antisocial features after adolescence suggesting that antisocial features emerge as a secondary phenomenon to pathological gambling behavior patterns.Acknowledgments: This study was made possible by a grant from the Criminology Research Council, Australian Institute of Criminology.     

Criminal offenses in gamblers anonymous and hospital treated pathological gamblers

The purpose of this study was to compare the nature and prevalence of gambling and non-gambling related offenses in samples of pathological gamblers seeking behavioural treatment from a hospital-based program and those attending Gamblers Anonymous. A semi-structured interview schedule obtaining demographic data and details of the nature, frequency, and consequent legal action of criminal offenses committed was administered to 152 consecutive hospital treated pathological gamblers, and 154 Gamblers Anonymous attendees who volunteered to participate in the study. Of the total sample, 59% admitted a gambling-related offense, and 23% to a conviction. There was no difference in the proportion of hospital treated and Gamblers Anonymous subjects who offended. The most common gambling-related offenses were larceny, embezzlement and misappropriation. Gamblers committed a median of ten offenses over an average ten year period of pathological gambling with a median value of $ A 300¹ per offense. The median value for each non-gambling-related offense was $ A 130. Except for the significantly older mean age of Gamblers Anonymous subjects, hospital treated gamblers did not differ from Gamblers Anonymous attenders on relevant demographic features or parameters of gambling behaviour. Findings were interpreted to suggest a possible causal link between pathological gambling and the commission of non-violent property offenses.This study was supported by a grant from the Criminology Research Council. The views expressed are the responsibility of the authors and are not necessarily those of the Council. The contribution of Anna Frankova, Research Assistant, is gratefully acknowledged.     

Enhancing Appearance and Sports Performance: Are Female Collegiate Athletes Behaving More Like Males?

Objective: The authors investigated behavioral indicators of pathological gambling in a college student sample. Participants and Methods: The authors administered a diagnostic interview for pathological gambling to 159 college students, who also completed a demographic questionnaire, and a self-report measure of psychological distress. Results: Consistent patterns of gambling behavior associated with pathological gambling included gambling more than 1.2 times per month, gambling more than 2.1 hours per month, intending to wager more than 6.1% of monthly income, and wagering more than 10.5% of monthly income. In addition, the combination of psychological distress, gambling frequency, and a history of parental gambling problems was significantly associated with pathological gambling in college students. Conclusions: These findings suggest initial markers of problematic gambling behavior in a college sample that may be used in assessment, prevention, and intervention.     

Adolescent Gambling Behavior: A Prevalence Study and Examination of the Correlates Associated with Problem Gambling

Eight-hundred and seventeen adolescent high school students in the Montreal region completed the DSM-IV-J gambling screen along with a questionnaire devised by the authors inquiring about their gambling behavior, including items assessing the types of activities in which they engage, frequency of involvement, reasons for gambling, and their cognitive perceptions of gambling activities. The results indicate that, in general, 80.2% of students reported having gambled during the previous year, with 35.1% gambling a minimum of once per week. Adolescents reported participating in gambling behavior more often than any other addictive behavior, including cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and illicit drug use. The mean age of onset of gambling behavior for the sample was 11.5 years. The rate of pathological gambling was 4.7% as measured by the DSM-IV-J. Pathological gamblers were more likely to have parents with gambling problems and to be engaging in illegal activities than non-pathological gamblers. Gender differences were evident, with males engaging in gambling activities more than females. Differences in game preferences were found, with males more attracted to sports lottery tickets and sports pool betting and females more attracted to lottery tickets and bingo. Gambling awareness and prevention issues are addressed.     

Pathological gambling: Marital-familial factors,implications, and treatments

The literature relating marital/familial factors to pathological gambling is reviewed. It is pointed out that numerous authors who focus on individual factors note the existence of marital problems in their patients. Additionally, improvements in the marriage often follow successful treatment for pathological gambling. Marital therapy has proven to be an effective intervention for this problem in many cases.The material in this article was abstracted from the author's chapter on pathological gambling which was prepared forThe Addictions: Differential Treatments, edited by L'Abate, Farrar, and Serritella (in preparation).     

Social,psychological and physical consequences of pathological gambling in Sweden

Social, psychological and physical consequences of pathological gambling reported by 42 pathological gamblers recruited mainly by advertising were compared with data on 63 pathological gamblers identified by case-finding within districts of probation, in- and out-patient psychiatric care and social welfare authorities. The two studies gave similar results. Financial breakdown, impaired relations with family and friends, and psychological problems occurred in about 50% of the pathological gamblers. Physical consequences were perceived to be of minor significance. Gambling became a solitary behavior as illegal behaviors to finance gambling increased. The pathological gamblers frequently abused alcohol. Despite these signs of social decay the pathological gamblers strove not to be a burden in society.     

The Relationship of Problem Gambling to Criminal Behavior in a Sample of Canadian Male Federal Offenders

This article examines the prevalence of moderate and severe problem gambling in a sample of 254 incarcerated Canadian male federal offenders (completion rate of 39.0%). The prevalence of disordered gambling was measured using the PGSI, DSM-IV-TR, and SOGS that yielded estimates of 9.4%, 6.3%, and 13.0%, respectively. Severe problem gamblers were significantly more likely to have committed income producing offences, but were neither more nor less likely than other offenders to have committed violent offences. The majority of severe problem gamblers (65.2%) and a fifth of the moderate problem gamblers (20.0%) reported that their criminal activity was a result of their gambling (e.g., to pay off debts). Based on these findings there appears to be a need to offer problem gambling treatment services to offenders in order to help them break the cycle of gambling, debt and crime.     

Risk Factors in Adolescence: The Case of Gambling, Videogame Playing, and the Internet

It has been noted that adolescents may be more susceptible to pathological gambling. Not only is it usually illegal, but it appears to be related to high levels of problem gambling and other delinquent activities such as illicit drug taking and alcohol abuse. This paper examines risk factors not only in adolescent gambling but also in videogame playing (which shares many similarities with gambling). There appear to be three main forms of adolescent gambling that have been widely researched. Adolescent gambling activities and general risk factors in adolescent gambling are provided. As well, the influence of technology on adolescents in the form of both videogames and the Internet are examined. It is argued that technologically advanced forms of gambling may be highly appealing to adolescents.     

Prevalence Estimates of Adolescent Gambling: A Comparison of the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the GA 20 Questions

Concerns over the rising prevalence of adolescent gambling problems have become more commonplace. A recent meta analysis of studies examining adolescent prevalence rates by Shaffer and Hall (1996) has suggested that between 77–83% of adolescents are engaging in some form of gambling behavior with between 9.9% and 14.2% of youth remaining at risk for a serious gambling problem. Their results further suggest that between 4.4% and 7.4% of adolescents exhibit serious adverse gambling related problems and/or pathological gambling behavior. Comparisons of studies are often difficult due to the use of alternative measures, differing classification schemes, and nomenclature. The present study examined the gambling behaviors of 980 adolescents who were administered three screening measures used with adolescents; the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the GA 20 Questions. The DSM-IV-J was found to be the most conservative measure identifying 3.4% of the population as problem/pathological gamblers while the SOGS-GA identified 5.3% and the GA 20 Questions identified 6% of youth as experiencing serious gambling problems. The degree of concordance amongst the measures, gender differences, and classification systems are discussed.     

Illusion of control and gambling in children

This paper outlines a cognitive theory to explain persistent gambling behavior. The major thesis is that people who persist in gambling in the face of significant losses do so, in part, because they misattribute the locus of control of the outcome of gambles to themselves rather than a random environmental event. Stated differently, this implies that people who are involved in gambling situations and win, find ways to take responsibility for winning, and that people will seek to exert control and direction over future gambles as well. This explanation is not intended to totally supplant existing theoretical analyses of persistent gambling such as models of addictive processes, or psychodynamic motivations, but rather to add a cognitive process dimension. Indeed, the different models are not mutually exclusive. In all probability, parts of each are useful in explaining pathological gambling. This study suggests that more importance and more research is need in the cognitive area to fully understand pathological gambling.     

Alcohol Use and Prior Substance Abuse Treatment in Relation to Gambling Problem Severity and Gambling Treatment Outcome

Recent research has made it clear that problematic gambling is often accompanied by problematic alcohol use. Unfortunately, little is known about the nature of this association, especially as it relates to gambling treatment outcome. The purpose of this study is to explore the effect of current alcohol use level and previous substance abuse treatment on the symptoms of a large cohort of pathological gamblers as well as on their response to treatment for pathological gambling. The sample included 464 men and 301 women recruited at six gambling treatment programs in Minnesota. Gambling treatment patients were assessed on a number of gambling problem severity and related clinical variables using the Gambling Treatment Outcome Monitoring System (GAMTOMS). Patients with frequent alcohol use had greater gambling involvement at baseline than infrequent alcohol users. Patients with a previous history of substance abuse treatment had more severe psychosocial problems, ostensibly resulting from their gambling behavior, than patients without past substance abuse treatment. A MANOVA with repeated measures showed that neither pretreatment alcohol use, nor past substance abuse treatment exerted significant effects on gambling treatment outcome. While the level of pretreatment alcohol use and a history of substance abuse treatment are markers for greater gambling problem severity, treatment outcome for pathological gambling was not adversely impacted by these variables.     

The Social Costs of Gambling: An Economic Perspective

Much of the opposition to legalized gambling is based on analyses of the social costs that occur as a result of pathological gambling. It is our contention that many, if not most, authors who have contributed to this literature are either unclear or misguided in what they define as social costs. Instead of starting with a clear definition of what constitutes a social cost, these authors have adopted an ad hoc approach-using "common sense" to determine what constitutes losses to society and then attempting to quantify the impact of those activities. We believe this is not, as some suggest, simply a matter of semantics. Rather, it is a serious problem in the gambling literature. How do we differentiate between a consequence of pathological gambling that is a "social cost" and one that is not? Which of the consequences of addictive behaviors that are associated with gambling arise when gambling is legal, and which will be manifest in some form whether or not gambling is legal? In this article we explain the economic perspective on social costs. An understanding of this paradigm removes the subjectivity in the classification of pathological gambling's social costs. The paper has three major components. First, we introduce the economic notion of social costs. Using this paradigm, we differentiate between the "true" social costs related to pathological gambling, and other negative consequences that cannot legitimately be classified as social costs. Second, we evaluate a recent social cost study using the economics social cost paradigm. Third, we discuss two types of social costs that have been largely overlooked in the gambling literature. One is caused by gambling prohibition. The other occurs as a result of "rent seeking" that is related to the political process surrounding the legalization of gambling.     

Psychological characteristics of volunteers in studies on gambling

Advertisements were published in local newspapers asking for volunteers to participate in a study on gambling. A battery of eleven questionnaires was mailed to the subjects assessing pathological gambling behavior, sociodemographic characteristics, motivation to gamble, erroneous perceptions about gambling, superstitious beliefs, depressive symptoms, social anxiety and avoidance, alcohol and drug abuse, problem-solving skills, and marital satisfaction. Subjects received $10 when they returned the questionnaires fully completed. Response rate was over 95%. Surprisingly, 29% of the respondents met the criterion for probable pathological gambling (score of 5 or more on the SOGS) and a further 16% were identified as potential pathological gamblers (scores of 3 or 4). The potential and probable pathological gamblers showed significant differences on motivational and cognitive variables related to gambling compared to those subjects who showed no signs of pathological gambling. The probable pathological gamblers reported significantly more signs of poor psychosocial functioning than the other two groups, including depressive symptoms, poor problem orientation, drug and alcohol abuse, and interpersonal conflict. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

The role of natural recovery in alcoholism and pathological gambling

While most pathological gamblers, like most alcohol abusers, recover on their own, it seems likely that they are at greater risk for relapse than those who have been through successful treatment. Accordingly, a substantial increase in treatment resources for pathological gamblers, along with greater efforts to establish the effectiveness of these treatments, ought to receive national priority. If the data on alcohol-abusing self-changers are generalizable to self-changing pathological gamblers, the prognosis for gamblers who stop gambling all together is better than for those who aspire to controlled or nonproblem gambling. While pathological gamblers with comorbid substance abuse are more difficult to treat than those without it, the impact of comorbid substance abuse on the decision by pathological gamblers to change has not yet been explored, although it should be. Similarly, the impact of other Axis I pathology on pathological gambling self-change, especially depression and anxiety, should be thoroughly explored. The most pressing problem in this field appears to be definitional. As a consequence, until consensus is reached on a reliable, valid, and useful classification scheme for pathological gambling, both research and clinical efforts will continue to suffer.     

Prevalence surveys of problem and pathological gambling in Europe: The cases of Germany,Holland and Spain

In the 1960s and 1970s, many European countries legalized several forms of gambling, especially slot machines, lotteries, casinos and bingo, in order to control illegal gambling and to obtain tax revenues for government. In this paper, we examine the status of research on problem and pathological gambling in three European countries: Germany, Holland and Spain. The results of the studies as well as the relationship between these studies and the expanding gaming industries, attitudes toward gambling in the general population, and the regulation and control of gaming in each country are discussed.     

Lifetime of Prevalence and Risk Factors of Problem and Pathologic Gambling in North Cyprus

In this article, the results of the national survey of adult gambling behavior in North Cyprus (NC) in 2012 are presented. The aim of this study is to investigate the characteristics of adults’ participation in gambling, and to determine the prevalence of ‘problem and pathological gambling’ in NC. The population of this study was formed from all the people living permanently in NC, speaking Turkish, and within the age group 18–65. Household interviews were conducted with 966 people. To obtain data, a 30 item questionnaire prepared by the researchers and a Turkish version of the Revised South Oaks Gambling Screen were used. Prevalence rates are compared with the results of the study conducted in 2007 using the same methodology and survey form. The lifetime prevalence of participating at least once in any of the 17 gambling activities investigated in the survey was 66.4 %. 3.5 % of the respondents scored as lifetime probable pathological gamblers and 9.2 % as probable problem gamblers. Risk factors for becoming probable problem and pathological gamblers include being male, being in the 19–28 age group, having a high education level, having a job and being born in Cyprus. This study shows that the prevalence of problem gambling is high in NC and increasing gradually. NC has socio-cultural features such as a history of colonization, socioeconomic problems and high unemployment, similar to other high prevalence gambling regions, which is suggestive of the importance of socio-cultural factors on gambling behavior.     

On a Roll: The Process of Initiation and Cessation of Problem Gambling Among Adolescents

As gambling becomes more accessible and acceptable in society, problems associated with gambling and gaming have begun to affect ever increasing numbers of adolescents. Although restricted from most forms of gambling by law, many adolescents are finding a path into problem gambling. Some are becoming compulsive gamblers early in their gambling career, facing a future filled with consequences and problems. Understanding the pathway or process by which these adolescents become engaged in gambling behavior and how they can extricate themselves from this addictive behavior can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of our interventions. This article offers a perspective on the initiation and cessation of compulsive gambling using the basic elements of the process of intentional behavior change outlined in the Stages of Change from the Transtheoretical Model. The process of initiation of a problematic behavior is similar to the process of modification or cessation of a problematic behavior in terms of these stages of change. With adolescents it is important to distinguish between the process of initiation, which has implications for prevention of gambling problems, and the process of cessation, which often necessitates the assistance of treatment. Creating interventions that parallel the process of change offers the potential for personalizing and potentiating efforts to reduce the prevalence and consequences associated with compulsive or pathological and problem gambling. Application of this model to gambling behavior offers a heuristic that is intriguing and requires substantiation through rigorous research.     

Risk Factors for Problematic Gambling: A Critical Literature Review

This article is a critical review of risk factors for pathological gambling categorized by demographics, physiological and biological factors, cognitive distortions, comorbidity and concurrent symptoms, and personality symptoms and characteristics. There is also a varia section (availability, parents playing, sensory characteristics, schedules of reinforcement, age of onset, and playing duration). The review found very few well established risk factors for pathological gambling (i.e. more than two studies to support the conclusions). Well established risk factors included demographic variables (age, gender), cognitive distortions (erroneous perceptions, illusion of control), sensory characteristics, schedules of reinforcement, comorbid disorders (OCD, drug abuse), and delinquency/illegal acts. An understanding of risk factors for pathological gambling should enhance prevention and treatment approaches.     

Prevalence and Correlates of Gambling Problems Among a Nationally Representative Sample of Brazilian Adolescents

The objectives of the study are: (a) to provide the first prevalence estimates of pathological gambling among Brazilian adolescents using an age-specific instrument in a nationally representative sample; (b) to investigate the extent to which adolescents participate in gambling activities in a developing country; and (c) to correlate different levels of gambling behavior with demographic variables. Multistage cluster sampling selected 3,007 individuals over 14 years of age from Brazilian household population. A total of 661 participants were between 14 and 17 years old. The Lie/Bet Questionnaire and the DSM-IV-MR-J were used for assessing problem and pathological gambling. 2.8% scored positive on the screening questionnaire, while 1.6% were classified as problem and pathological gamblers. Factors associated with problem and pathological gambling were male sex, not currently studying and considering religion as not important. Less than 4 months elapsed between the age of regular gambling involvement and the first gambling problem. Prevalence rates were quite similar from recent studies which used nationally representative samples. The association of problem and pathological gambling with male sex, school drop-out and low religiosity supports the Problem Behavior Theory. The fast progression to problem gambling adds evidence that adolescents may be more vulnerable to the effects of gambling.