The relationship between dissociative-like experiences and sensation seeking among social and problem gamblers

The present study examined the relationships between dissociative experiences, sensation seeking scores, and gambling behavior. On the basis of the frequency of their gambling behavior and responses to the Gamblers Anonymous Twenty Questions, subjects were designated as either problem gamblers (N=30) or social gamblers (N=30).Those designated as problem gamblers responded yes to an average of 12.17 questions on the Gamblers Anonymous Twenty Questions as compared to the social gamblers who averaged 1.90 yes responses. Responses on the Twenty Questions correlated strongly with the frequency of gambling behavior and dissociative experiences. Problem gamblers reported a significantly greater number of dissociative experiences than social gamblers (p<.01). Problem gamblers scored significantly higher than social gamblers on the Total Sensation Seeking Scale, and the Boredom Susceptibility, Experience Seeking, and Disinhibition subscales. Clinical implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Pathological gambling: A comparison of gambling at German-style slot machines and “Classical” gambling

German-style slot machines and related legal issues are described. On the basis of a survey on 437 members of self-help groups (Gamblers Anonymous) in Germany, slot machine gamblers were compared with casino gamblers on such variables as sociodemographic data, gambling behaviour, financial expenditure, emotional experience while gambling, symptoms of pathological gambling, psychosocial consequences and gambling related delinquency. The casino gamblers' gambling behaviour is financially more extensive. There were similarities regarding the emotional intensity of the gambling experience. However the casino gamblers show more pronounced symptoms of pathological gambling and the psychosocial consequences of their gambling behaviour are more severe. In spite of these differences, the data show that for young people slot machines can be as stimulating and therefore as dangerous as casino gambling. The young slot machine gambler runs a similar risk of acquiring a pathological gambling habit as the casino gambler.I would like to thank Dr. Gerhard Meyer for his support and his comments on the first draft of this article which is based on data from a research project led by him.     

Pathological Gambling: Psychosomatic,emotional and marital difficulties as reported by the Gambler

Two parallel self-administered surveys were distributed at three conferences of Gamblers Anonymous. One survey was for members of Gamblers Anonymous and the other was for members of GamAnon. Approximately 500 respondents completed the surveys. This article is a report of some of the data from the gamblers' survey. This survey focused on two time periods of the compulsive gambler's life—during the desperation phase of the illness (Custer, 1982) and the phase following a period of abstinence from gambling. Specific areas covered in this preliminary report focus on the psychosomatic problems encountered by the gambler, emotional difficulties, sexual estrangement, and the need for mental health services. It is anticipated that some of these needs can be met through training or therapy sessions in professional gambling treatment centers and at Gamblers Anonymous conferences.This article is a revised version of a paper presented at the Sixth National Conference on Gambling and Risk Taking, Atlantic City, New Jersey, December 1984.Robert Yaffee computer scientist, was assisted by senior research assistants: Nancy Frankel, Danny Frankel, Deborah Becker, Douglas Rosen, Leslav Giermanski, Jaime Beauchamp, and Thomas Reingold. Other research assistants included Joseph Lautner, Trudy Myers, Arvind Chawla, and John Morales. To all of these individuals, the National Foundation for Study & Treatment of Pathological Gambling acknowledges its gratitude for their contribution to this project.     

Current trends in slot machine gambling: Research and policy issues

This paper introduces a special issue of theJournal of Gambling Studies on slot machine gambling, and overviews some current trends concentrating on research and policy issues. It is demonstrated that throughout the world, research findings have linked slot machines with pathological gambling. Indeed slot machines are now the predominant form of gambling activity by pathological gamblers treated in self help groups and professional treatment centres in numerous countries. This paper briefly examines the research on slot machines and pathological gambling and then goes on more specifically to examine four areas. These are (i) slot machine gambling and youth, (ii) slot machines and arcade video game playing, (iii) the possible developmental link between slot machines and video games and (iv) pathological video game playing.     

Who Are the Anonymous? Involvement and Predictors of Gamblers Anonymous Attendance Among Disordered Gamblers Presenting for Treatment

Gamblers Anonymous is the most widely available form of support for disordered gambling. Although chapters exist worldwide, knowledge of how attendees interact with the program is limited. The present study aimed to investigate involvement in Gamblers Anonymous among attendees, motives for attendance, and overall satisfaction with the program. Furthermore, potential gambling-related predictors of attendance versus deciding not to attend Gamblers Anonymous were investigated. A treatment-seeking sample of disordered gamblers (N?=?512) from São Paulo, Brazil completed a series of self-report measures including an author-compiled Gamblers Anonymous survey. From the sample, 141 gamblers reported attending Gamblers Anonymous over the previous 30 days. An examination of involvement, satisfaction, and motives for attending Gamblers Anonymous was conducted, followed by regression analyses to assess predictors of attendance and satisfaction with the program. The majority of attendees (80%) reported some satisfaction with the program. The most common motive for attending Gamblers Anonymous was related to relapse prevention. Regression analyses revealed that greater gambling severity and number of days gambled were associated with not attending Gamblers Anonymous while giving testimonials was strongly related (OR?=?6.18) to satisfaction with the program. The findings of this study contribute to the literature on Gamblers Anonymous. In particular, that members derive great satisfaction from the program and see it as a way to strengthen their abstinence goals. However, despite high satisfaction, the results also suggest that most members were passively involved in the program. More research that assesses the effectiveness of Gamblers Anonymous as either a stand-alone or adjunct treatment is needed.     

Pathological gambling and associated patterns of crime: Comparisons with alcohol and other drug addictions

The pattern of convictions for various categories of crime in the population of the United Kingdom was compared with the corresponding pattern in a sample of addictive gamblers drawn from Gamblers Anonymous in the U.K. A distinctive pattern of income-generating crime was found to be statistically associated with pathological gambling. This pattern was compared with other distinctive patterns associated with the intake of alcohol and with various other drugs and it was found to resemble most closely that of addiction to narcotic drugs.The possible role of gambling as a contributory cause of crime is discussed in the light of what is known of the issues surrounding other addictions as causes of their distinctive patterns of crime.The content and presentation of this paper benefited from the comments of J. Gillies and A.J. Weir, both of the Department of Psychology, University of Glasgow. The collection of the data would have been impossible without the active encouragement and assistance of the General Services Board of Gamblers Anonymous, U.K., its chairman G. Moody and the National Committee of Gamblers Anonymous, U.K.     

The acquisition,development, and maintenance of fruit machine gambling in adolescents

In the U.K., the major commercial gambling activity in adolescents is the playing of slot machines (commonly known as “fruit machines”). Over the past few years, the negative effects of “fruit machine addiction” have been reported by various helping organizations (e.g. Gamblers Anonymous) and the national press, including allegations of attempted murder, suicide and prostitution as well as a wider incidence of petty crime. Fifty adolescent fruit machine players from a ‘user population’ participated in a face-to-face interview and questionnaire study examining factors in the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Nine adolescent males were deemed to be pathological gamblers as measured by the American Psychiatric Association DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria, and a number of serious consequences were reported including gambling debts, truancy and stealing.     

Governmental response to juvenile fruit machine gambling in the U.K: Where do we go from here?

The U.K. Gaming Act of 1968 prohibits young people under the age of eighteen years from all commercial gambling except on slot machines, commonly known as fruit machines and officially known as amusements with prizes. The U.K. Government responded to growing public concern, that some children are becoming addicted to this form of gambling and committing crime to fund their play, by directing the Home Office to undertake its own investigation. The researchers found no evidence of an association between the playing of amusement machines, dependency and delinquency. The Home Office study is critically assessed both on its own merit and in the light of research undertaken before and since. Suggestions are made for future sociological research initiatives.The author would like to thank the Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a Research Studentship Grant. The author would also like to thank David Dunkerley and Mark Griffiths for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Criminal offenses in gamblers anonymous and hospital treated pathological gamblers

The purpose of this study was to compare the nature and prevalence of gambling and non-gambling related offenses in samples of pathological gamblers seeking behavioural treatment from a hospital-based program and those attending Gamblers Anonymous. A semi-structured interview schedule obtaining demographic data and details of the nature, frequency, and consequent legal action of criminal offenses committed was administered to 152 consecutive hospital treated pathological gamblers, and 154 Gamblers Anonymous attendees who volunteered to participate in the study. Of the total sample, 59% admitted a gambling-related offense, and 23% to a conviction. There was no difference in the proportion of hospital treated and Gamblers Anonymous subjects who offended. The most common gambling-related offenses were larceny, embezzlement and misappropriation. Gamblers committed a median of ten offenses over an average ten year period of pathological gambling with a median value of $ A 300¹ per offense. The median value for each non-gambling-related offense was $ A 130. Except for the significantly older mean age of Gamblers Anonymous subjects, hospital treated gamblers did not differ from Gamblers Anonymous attenders on relevant demographic features or parameters of gambling behaviour. Findings were interpreted to suggest a possible causal link between pathological gambling and the commission of non-violent property offenses.This study was supported by a grant from the Criminology Research Council. The views expressed are the responsibility of the authors and are not necessarily those of the Council. The contribution of Anna Frankova, Research Assistant, is gratefully acknowledged.     

The treatment model of the guidance center for gamblers and their relatives in Vienna/Austria

Within 8 years, Gamblers Anonymous in Vienna evolved into a guidance center for gamblers and their relatives, with professional aid. It is a non-profit institution and the therapeutic team consists of one psychologist, one social-worker and one psychiatrist. The clients can remain anonymous, but about 90% of them reveal their identity. The treatment model integrating professional therapy and self-help is presented. The reasons we decided to base our work on an addiction model of pathological gambling are explained. All the clients consulting our center in 1990 (N=237) are described according to age, sex, types of gambling, duration of problem gambling, family status, profession, income, debts, and income/debt relationship. Finally, the treatment program of our center is presented.This article is an extension of the special issue on Gambling in Europe edited by Iver Hand, M.D.     

Clustering Finnish Gambler Profiles Based on the Money and Time Consumed in Gambling Activities

Gambling involves consumption of gamblers’ money and time. Gamblers are a heterogeneous group, and in addition to grouping gamblers based on personality factors, it is also important to find different gambler profiles with respect to their gambling behavior. Using the nationally representative survey ‘Finnish Gambling 2011’ (N = 4484), this article studies the subtypes of Finnish gamblers based on the frequency of gambling and the amounts of money and time used in different gambling forms. Cluster analysis reveals six profiles of gamblers, from infrequent gamblers to omnivorous gamblers. In the further analysis of the clusters, it was found that the highest problem gambling prevalence was in the groups of sport betting + electronic gaming machine gamblers and omnivorous gamblers, which were also both dominated by men. Certain gambling consumption patterns and risk factors for problem gambling are related to both socio-demographic backgrounds of the gamblers as well as the structural and situational characteristics of the games. The results have implications for the prevention of problem gambling, as some consumption patterns may be connected with the probability of developing gambling problems.     

The Four Es of Problem Gambling: A Psychological Measure of Risk

A focus group of Reno area Gamblers Anonymous members identified four psychological traits contributing to risk for problem gambling, including: Escape, Esteem, Excess and Excitement. A panel of four experts authored 240 Likert-type items to measure these traits. By design, none of the items explicitly referred to gambling activities. Study 1 narrowed the field of useful items by employing a quasi-experimental design which compared the answers of Reno area Gamblers Anonymous members (N = 39) to a control sample (N = 34). Study 2 submitted successful items, plus new items authored with the knowledge gained from Study 1, to validation in a random sample telephone survey across Queensland, Australia (N=2577). The final 40 item Four Es scale (4Es) was reliable (α=.90); predicted gambling problems as measured by the Canadian Problem Gambling Index of Severity (PGSI, Ferris & Wynne (2001). The Canadian Problem Gambling Index: Final Report: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse); and distinguished problem gamblers from persons with alcohol abuse problems. The new scale can provide a basis for further study in harm minimization, treatment, and theory development.     

Altering the DSM-III criteria for pathological gambling

Following a critique and revision of the diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling in DSM-III, a field trial of the revised criteria was conducted. Four groups of individuals (762 in all) were surveyed: Gamblers Anonymous members, college students, hospital employees, and outpatients in treatment for pathological gambling. The revised criteria were found to discriminate effectively between pathological gamblers and others. In order to refine the cutoff point, the results on the DSM-III revision were compared to the South Oaks Gambling Screen, a valid, reliable instrument for screening pathological gamblers (Lesieur & Blume, 1987). A cutoff point of four or more items was found to be optimal in diagnosing pathological gamblers.This research was funded by the South Oaks Foundation, Amityville, New York. Special thanks are given Sheila Blume, M.D., Julian I. Taber, Ph.D. and Robert L. Custer, M.D. for their comments on earlier drafts of this paper.     

A Comparison of Depression and Styles of Coping in Male and Female GA Members and Controls

Depression and maladaptive coping styles are important components of theories of pathological gambling and are frequently foci of treatment with individuals with gambling problems. The present study aimed to improve understanding and treatment of pathological gambling by comparing levels of depression and styles of coping in male and female members of Gamblers Anonymous (GA) to a group of non-pathological gambling controls matched according to gender, age, education, and income. Pathological gambling was measured by the South Oaks Gambling Scale, depression by the Beck Depression Inventory, and coping styles by the Problem-Focused Styles of Coping inventory. Results showed that GA members reported significantly higher levels of depression and more maladaptive styles of coping than controls. Pathological gamblers' greater use of maladaptive coping was evident even when variance attributable to depression was removed, suggesting that their coping deficits may be pervasive. Female subjects reported significantly greater levels of depression and maladaptive coping thantheir male counterparts. Implications for treating depression and coping styles in pathological gamblers are discussed.     

Compulsive gambling in Britain

In 1968 England legalized casino gaming. Unlike their counterparts in America, legislators in the House of Lords actively debated ways to help compulsive gamblers. Parliament adopted the 48 hour rule, requiring players to wait two days before gambling, put severe restrictions on check cashing in casinos and, limited the number of slot machines to two per club. England considered, but rejected, other proposals: the method, used in France, of allowing compulsive gamblers to voluntarily put their names on a list of persons to be excluded and, complete prohibitions on casino credit. Although the legislative restrictions greatly reduced compulsive gambling among adult gamers; sadly, Parliament ignored what has become a growing source of compulsive gambling among children: the practically unlimited availability of public arcades with amusement machines paying small cash prizes.The author wishes to thank James Claber for assistance in this article.     

Suicidal behavior among members of Gamblers Anonymous

A national sample of 500 members of Gamblers Anonymous was surveyed by mail in order to gather information on suicidal history. One hundred sixty two usable surveys were returned representing 32.4% of the original sample. Compulsive gamblers who had a history of suicidal preoccupation began gambling at an earlier age than nonsuicidal gamblers and were more likely to have stolen to support their gambling. They also tended to have addicted relatives and children more than nonsuicidal gamblers did. The data suggest that those gamblers who had been suicidal tend to be more serious gamblers than nonsuicidal respondents.     

Gamblers can discriminate ‘tight’ from ‘loose’ electronic gambling machines

All slot machines make money over time, but the payouts to the players can differ. ‘Loose’ machines pay out more than ‘tight’ machines. Gamblers (n = 1402) at Ontario slots venues were assessed using the Problem Gambling Severity Index. Their beliefs about slots were polled using the Informational Biases Scale. Problem gamblers were more likely than non-problem and at-risk gamblers to endorse the belief that ‘some slot machines keep me from winning because they are programmed to produce fewer wins than normal’. We then showed that after extensive play (60 hours), 9 out of 10 gamblers were able to correctly discriminate a ‘loose’ machine (98% payback) from a ‘tight’ machine (85% payback). Problem gamblers' assertions that there are ‘loose’ and ‘tight’ machines demonstrate a belief rooted in reality. The ability to distinguish ‘loose’ from ‘tight’ machines may be interpreted as a skill by players. Such skill, when overestimated, may lead to erroneous cognitions.     

Children of Gamblers Anonymous members

One hundred and five children of Gamblers Anonymous (GA) members and pathological gamblers in treatment were surveyed concerning behavioral, psychological, and emotional problems as well as parental use of violence. The results were compared with control groups and Jacobs' study of high school students who reported they were children of compulsive gamblers. Children of known pathological gamblers were less likely to admit to moderate or heavy use of cocaine/crack and less likely to gamble more than they could afford than either Jacobs' children of compulsive gamblers or controls. Children of pure gamblers looked more like Jacobs' controls than the self-reported children of compulsive gamblers he surveyed on several measures. Children of multiple-problem families are more likely than children of pure gamblers to smoke tobacco, get drunk, overeat, sleep worse than most people, have an unhappy present state of mind, and feel more insecure, inferior, or inadequate than most. GA and treatment children as a whole were more likely to say they had an unhappy childhood, and feel a need for success, acceptance, and approval than Jacobs' children of compulsive gamblers or his controls. Using Strauset al.'s conflict tactics scale, children of known pathological gamblers were more subject to parental violence and abuse than nationally normed samples. On most measures, the children of multiple-problem families fared worse than children of pure gamblers. However, there were no differences in the expressions of anger, hurt, sadness, depression, confusion, and other feelings between these groups concerning their parents' gambling. Treatment implications of the findings are discussed.The authors would like to thank Mary Heineman, M.S.W., and Valerie Lorenz, Ph.D., for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Sympathetic Magic and Gambling: Adherence to the Law of Contagion Varies with Gambling Severity

This study assessed adherence to the law of contagion by 118 undergraduate students (39 males). Participants were students who played a slot machine game after viewing a prior player who seemed to be winning (“lucky” condition) or losing (“unlucky” condition). Adherence to the law of contagion was assessed by the selection of the coin holder used by a “lucky” prior player and the avoidance of the coin holder used by an “unlucky” prior player. Contagion varied directly with scores on the Problem Gambling Severity Index and scores on the Luck/Perseverance subscale of the Gamblers’ Belief Questionnaire (Steenbergh et al. in Psychol Addict Behav 16(2):143–149, 2002). Gamblers high in problem severity chose the “lucky” coin holder and avoided the “unlucky” coin holder significantly more than gamblers low in problem severity. Problem gamblers, therefore, exhibit evidence of magical thinking related to the transfer of a “lucky” essence. The same was the case for individuals with a strong level of belief that sheer continuation in gambling (luck perseverance) results in success and for individuals who believe that luck is a personal rather than a situational characteristic. All three variables (problem gambling severity, luck perseverance and personal luck) had direct effects on behavior reflecting irrational magical thinking. A belief that knowledge or skill has a role in successful gaming was unrelated to magical thinking. These findings suggest potential foci for cognitive interventions with problem gamblers and those with non-skill based evidence of irrational thinking.     

Roulette gamblers and gamblers at electronic game machines: Where are the differences?

In an unselected group of 46 excessive gamblers who came for psychiatric help or for an expert opinion on legal responsibility, two different groups of gamblers are compared: roulette gamblers and those who played at German-style slot machines. In all excessive gamblers, childhood developmental limitations as well as disorders in the ability to form and maintain partner relationships in later life were frequent; at the same time the childhood conditions and their life histories are diverse. The spectrum of observed psychiatric disorders is rather wide. Gamblers at electronic game machines began to play at an average age of 19 years; they more often belong to the lower classes and show depressive and reactive disorders more frequently. Roulette gamblers began to gamble excessively on average nine years later than other gamblers; they showed signs of personality disorders, especially narcissistic and cyclothymic patterns, significantly more often. Anti-social behavior and delinquency before the onset of excessive gambling were frequent in both groups.