Movement Differences between Deliberate and Spontaneous Facial Expressions: Zygomaticus Major Action in Smiling

Previous research suggests differences in lip movement between deliberate and spontaneous facial expressions. We investigated within participant differences between deliberately posed and spontaneously occurring smiles during a directed facial action task. Using automated facial image analysis, we quantified lip corner movement during periods of visible Zygomaticus major activity. Onset and offset speed, amplitude of movement, and offset duration were greater in deliberate smiles. In contrast to previous results, however, lip corner movement asymmetry was not greater in deliberate smiles. Observed characteristics of deliberate and spontaneous smiling may be related to differences in the typical context and purpose of the facial signal. Karen L. Schmidt, Zara Ambadar, Jeffrey F. Cohn, and L. Ian Reed are affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA. Jeffrey F. Cohn is also affiliated with the Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA. This research was supported by NIMH Grants MH15279 and 167376 to Karen L. Schmidt, and NIMH Grant MH 51435 to Jeffrey F. Cohn. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Adena Zlochower in digitizing videotape used in this analysis and Rachel Levenstein in the analysis of data described in this paper. Address correspondence to Karen L. Schmidt, University of Pittsburgh, 121 University Pl, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA; E-mail: kschmidt@pitt.edu     

The Clergyman and the Psychologist as Marriage Counselors: Differences in Philosophy,Referral Patterns and Treatment Approaches to Non-Marital Relationships*

This paper reflects the thoughts, observations and clinical experiences of the authors and two dozen of their colleagues in treating people involved in an assortment of non-marital sexual relationships. The scant existing literature is alluded to when pertinent. Ten types of non-married couple and group sex patterns and four special kinds of relationships that are of particular interest to therapists and to which they might find themselves peculiarly susceptible are described. Similarities between the philosophies, treatment approaches and referral patterns to psychologists and clergymen are elucidated; major differences are highlighted. One conclusion is that there is a need for much research into what constitutes effective treatment for people living alternate lifestyles to monogamous unions.     

Antecedents of Union Commitment: The Impact of Union Membership Differences in Vertical Dyads and Work Group Relationships

Relational demography has recently been employedto investigate the influence of workplace diversity onorganizational outcomes, such as organizationalcommitment, turnover, and performance (O Reilly,Caldwell, & Barnett, 1989; Tsui & O Reilly, 1989;Tsui, Egan, & O Reilly, 1992; Tsui, Egan, &Porter, 1994). In the present study, we utilize thetechniques and theoretical framework employed in the relational demography literature to examine theimpact of heterogeneous union membership status withinwork groups and vertical dyads, and the effect of thesedifferences on union commitment. A composite dataset was created from two Australianhospitals. Analyses of the data were confined to 460nursing staff who could be identified within 43 specificwork groups (hospital wards). The results indicate that while no relationship was found betweendifferences in membership status among co-workers inwork groups on commitment, differences between membersand their supervisors served to decrease union loyalty and belief in unionism (controlling for otherunion and organizational factors). Importantly, we foundsupport for an interaction effect between work groupsand vertical dyads. Differences in membership status among co-workers were observed to lowerunion loyalty and willingness to work for the union whensupervisors were nonunion members. The implications ofsuch findings for union policy are addressed.     

Therapists Working in New and Old Ways: An Integrative Ecological Framework for Non‐Familial Intergenerational Relationships

Non‐familial intergenerational (NFIG) relationships can complement conventional therapeutic interventions. We discuss the intergenerational gap and structural changes families have experienced over the last several decades. We advocate for an integrative framework combining non‐familial intergenerational opportunities with conventional therapeutic interventions. Finally, we address logistical and ethical dimensions of the integrative framework and participants' fitness, motivation, potential, and needs within non‐familial intergenerational programs/partnerships.     

Navigating Intersecting Identities,Self-Representation,and Relationships: A Qualitative Study with Trans Sex Workers Living and Working in Los Angeles,CA

This qualitative research study highlights the lived experiences and voices of diverse trans sex workers who are living and working in Los Angeles, California. Informed by transgender theory, feminist intersectionality theory, and standpoint feminist theoretical approaches to research, this study uses life history case studies, qualitative interactive interviews, and a life timeline approach with six trans sex workers living and working in various aspects of the sex trade in Los Angeles. This article focuses on the unique experiences of trans sex workers and examines how the intersectional identities of trans sex workers and the institutional forces they come into contact with shape the strengths, challenges, and empowering aspects related to their work in the sex trade, and their individual approaches to navigating personal and professional relationships/roles, maintaining quality of life, and resisting stereotypes and stigma.     

Review Essay: Social Relationships in Rural and Urban Communities: Key to Poverty Amelioration

Qualitative Sociology -     

Exploring developmental changes in infant anticipation and perceptual processing: EEG responses to tactile stimulation

There is an increasing interest in alpha-range rhythms in the electroencephalogram (EEG) in relation to perceptual and attentional processes. The infant mu rhythm has been extensively studied in the context of linkages between action observation and action production in infancy, but less is known about the mu rhythm in relation to cross-modal processes involving somatosensation. We investigated differences in mu responses to cued vibrotactile stimulation of the hand in two age groups of infants: From 6 to 7 months and 13 to 14 months. We were also interested in anticipatory neural responses in the alpha frequency range prior to tactile stimulation. Tactile stimulation of infants’ left or right hand was preceded by an audiovisual cue signaling which hand would be stimulated. In response to the tactile stimulus, infants demonstrated significant mu desynchronization over the central areas contralateral to the hand stimulated, with higher mu peak frequency and greater contralateral mu desynchronization for older infants. Prior to the tactile stimulus, both age groups showed significant bilateral alpha desynchronization over frontocentral sites, which may be indicative of generalized anticipation of an upcoming stimulus. The findings highlight the potential of examining the sensorimotor mu rhythm in the context of infant attentional development.     

Automated Corneal‐Reflection Eye Tracking in Infancy: Methodological Developments and Applications to Cognition

Since the mid‐1800s, experimental psychologists have been using eye movements and gaze direction to make inferences about perception and cognition in adults (Müller, 1826, cited in Boring, 1942). In the past 175 years, these oculomotor measures have been refined (see Kowler, 1990) and used to address similar questions in infants (see Aslin, 1985, 1987; Branson, 1982; Haith, 1980; Maurer, 1975). The general rationale for relying on these visual behaviors is that where one is looking is closely tied to what one is seeing. This is not to deny the fact that we can detect visual stimuli in the peripheral visual field, but rather that there is a bias to attend to and process information primarily when it is located in the central portion of the retina. Thus, although the direction of gaze is not perfectly correlated with the uptake of visual information (e.g., as in a blank stare or a covert shift of attention), there is a strong presumption that the direction of gaze can provide important information about visual stimuli even in newborn infants (Haith, 1966; Salapatek, 1968; Salapatek & Kessen, 1966).     

Internalizing Symptoms in Adolescents: Gender Differences in Vulnerability to Parental Distress and Discord

This longitudinal study investigated gender differences in the relation between (1) internalizing symptoms of depression and anxiety reported by adolescents, and (2) emotional distress and marital discord reported by their mothers. Structural equation modeling was used to track the relationship between these variables in a community sample of 116 males and 101 females and their parents across three data intervals roughly corresponding to early adolescence (M = 11,4), mid‐adolescence (M = 13,7), and late adolescence/early adulthood (M = 19,2). For early adolescents, there were no gender differences in the relation between internalizing symptoms and parental distress and discord. Gender differences did emerge, however, by midadolescence, at which time parental disturbances were significantly associated with internalizing symptoms in adolescent females but not adolescent males. The emergence of this risk factor during this developmental phase may help account for frequent findings that place adolescent females at higher risk for anxiety and depression than adolescent males.     

Where Infants Look Determines How They See: Eye Movements and Object Perception Performance in 3‐Month‐Olds

A fundamental question of perceptual development concerns how infants come to perceive partly hidden objects as unified across a spatial gap imposed by an occluder. Much is known about the time course of development of perceptual completion during the first several months after birth, as well as some of the visual information that supports unity perception in infants. The goal of this investigation was to examine the inputs to this process. We recorded eye movements in 3‐month‐old infants as they participated in a standard object unity task and found systematic differences in scanning patterns between those infants whose post‐habituation preferences were indicative of unity perception versus those infants who did not perceive unity. Perceivers, relative to nonperceivers, scanned more reliably in the vicinity of the visible rod parts and scanned more frequently across the range of rod motion. These results suggest that emerging object concepts are tied closely to available visual information in the environment, and the process of information pickup.     

Elder Abuse Coverage in Newspapers: Regional Differences and its Comparison to Child-Abuse Coverage

ABSTRACT

Dozens of studies have examined how the press portrays crime. Most of these studies focus on some aspect of the criminal or the response to the event. Few have considered the portrayal of victims and even fewer have examined the way the media portrays older victims. To fill this void, this study examines (1) whether elder abuse coverage varies across newspapers and (2) how the extent of elder abuse coverage compares to child-abuse coverage. Results indicate that regional differences appear to exist and child abuse receives far more coverage than elder abuse. Implications are provided.     

Yea-Saying, Nay-Saying, and Going to Extremes: Black-White Differences in Response Styles

This paper reports an important racial difference in patternsof responding to Likert-type items: blacks are more likely thanwhites to use the extreme response categories, particularlythe positive end of agree-disagree scales. This finding appearedconsistently in several large-scale nationally representativesurveys of youth. Response style indexes (Agreement, Disagreement,Acquiescence, and Extreme Responding) display ranges of individualdifferences and cross-time stabilities comparable to commonlyused personality measures. Response styles show no consistentdifferences by sex, and no appreciable correlation with indicatorsof family socioeconomic level or with educational accomplishmentsand aspirations. For both races, agreement tendencies are strongeramong those in the South, especially in nonmetropolitan areas;however, controlling for geography does little to reduce overallblack-white differences. The findings reveal potential pitfallsin dealing with racial differences in survey and personalitymeasures, and illustrate the need for great caution in reportingand interpreting such differences.     

Working to learn and learning to work: A profile of service-learning courses in university public relations programs

The purpose of this study was to use quantitative survey methodology triangulated with qualitative interviews to explore faculty perceptions in four key areas of service-learning in public relations programs: (1) conceptualization, (2) outcomes, (3) institutional support, and (4) instructional techniques. Results support findings in other disciplines. Public relations course goals reflect four different types of stated learning outcomes: (1) application to real-world settings, (2) teamwork, (3) interactions with PR clients, and (4) civic responsibility, but most educators include reflection opportunities only on public relations concepts and not on community engagement.     

Dual-earner families in Finland: Differences between and within families in relation to work and family experiences

The aims of the study were to create a typology of dual-earner families, based on mothers' and fathers' reports on vocational education, job involvement, and job exhaustion, and to investigate differences between the groups in family functioning, and work-family interface experiences. The study was carried out by means of questionnaires among 133 dual-earner couples with children under 18 years of age living at home. In creating the typology cluster analysis was used as a statistical procedure. In the analysis five groups emerged that were distinguished by both between-group and within-parent differences in the clustering variables: (1) low-status dual-earner families, (2) low-job-exhausted and low-job-involved dual-earner families, (3) dual-earner families with high-status and highly job-exhausted mothers, (4) dual-earner families with highly job-exhausted fathers, and (5) dual-earner families with high-status and highly job-involved fathers. Group membership was related to the characteristics of family life, and to the evaluations of work-family interaction as well as other job characteristics, thus indicating ecological validity for the family typology created. It seemed that a high level of job exhaustion, in particular, was linked to problems in family functioning. Les objectifs poursuivis dans l'analyse qui suit ont été de créer une typologie des familles à double revenu, typologie basée sur les rapports des mères et des pères concernant la formation professionnelle, l'importance accordée au métier et le degré d'épuisement causé par ce dernier, et d'enquêter sur les différences entre les groupes dans les expériences vécues du fonctionnement familial et de l'interaction emploi-famille. L'étude a été menée à l'aide de questionnaires distribués à 133 couples appartenant à cette classe de double revenu et dont les enfants de moins de 18 ans vivaient àla maison. Pour rassembler la typologie, une analyse agglomérée a été employée en tant que procédure de statistique. Au cours de cette analyse, les cinq groupes qui ont émergé se distinguaient par des différences qui touchaient à la fois les domaines inter-groupes et interparentaux selon ces variables d'agglomération: (1) les familles à double revenu à bas statut, (2) les familles àdouble revenu dans des emplois peu épuisants et peu motivants, (3) les familles à double revenu au statut élevé avec des mères épuisées par un emploi de niveau élevé, (4) les familles à double revenu avec des pères épuisés par un emploi de niveau élevé, et (5) les familles à double revenu au statut élevé avec des pères motivés par un emploi de niveau élevé. L'appartenance aux groupes était en rapport avec les caracteéristiques de la vie familiale et avec les évaluations concernant l'interaction emploi-famille ainsi que diverses caractéristiques de l'emploi, afin d'indiquer la validité écologique pour la typologie familiale créée. Il semblait ainsi qu'un important niveau d'épuisement au travail en particulier soit liéaux problèmes du fonctionnement familial.     

Beliefs About Parents' Right to Know: Domain Differences and Associations With Change in Concealment

Parent and adolescent (M = 15.7 years) beliefs regarding parents' right to know (RTK) about adolescents' activities were examined in 174 middle‐class U.S. families. Mean differences and associations with latent changes in teens' concealment were assessed. RTK was greatest about risky prudential activities, least for personal activities for parents and romantic activities for teens, and higher for mothers' ratings of girls' than boys' romantic behavior. Adolescents' stronger RTK beliefs predicted lower concealment 6 months later and less increase in concealment over time, although less so for romantic issues. In contrast, mothers' stronger RTK beliefs predicted more concealment over time. For personal issues, greater teen RTK beliefs slowed increases in concealment only when parents' RTK beliefs were low.     

Barriers to Prevention: Ethnic and Gender Differences in Latino Adolescent Motivations for Engaging in Risky Behaviors

Using a sample from the Longitudinal Study of Adolescent health (Add health), we tested whether psychosocial motivation or health factors were the best predictors of sexual engagement by Latinos. The Latino sample (3,460) included sub samples of Mexican (n = 1587) Chicano (n = 137), Cuban (n = 501), Puerto Rican (n = 586), Central/South American (n = 367) adolescents and individuals self-identified as Hispanic other (n = 282). Our findings showed that most Latino adolescents understood that if they had unprotected sex they were at risk for HIV/AIDS and STI’s. Additionally, as we hypothesized, the motivation items were better predictors of sexual engagement than the health risk items. However, the motivation items were only significant for the females with one exception, the Mexican males. There were other subgroup differences as well. Our findings have important implications for prevention strategies.     

Stress and Performance Standards: A Dynamic Approach to Time Spent in Housework

Daily logs collected over a 10‐week period from a small, nonrepresentative sample of young, childless married couples were examined. Housework was conceptualized as a daily decision predicated upon personal standards, social rhythms, and stress variables that shape the perception of need for housework. Findings indicate that home‐based stress, stress from outside the home, and standards are independent, additive predictors of housework time. In addition, stress and standards interact in ways suggesting that stress modifies the meaning of performance. High home‐based stress and low imported stress lead to more critical evaluations of ones' own performance and more monitoring of one's spouse's contributions. Husbands do more when wives do more, but only when wives import little stress from outside the home or perceive high demand for housework. Results are interpreted in terms of patterns of meaning and obligation.