Fear management: How child protection workers engage with non-citizen immigrant families

Drawing on in-depth, semi-structured interviews with a sample of 24 child protection workers in the northeastern United States, we analyze how workers engage with non-citizen immigrant families. Confirming findings from previous scholarship on immigrants' fears when interacting with Child Protection Services (CPS), workers reported encountering different fear factors—the organizations, events, or people that instill fear in immigrant families. These included fear of deportation, fear of CPS workers as the people who remove children, and fear of CPS as a potentially repressive government agency. We also found that workers seek to minimize or leverage these fears in the engagement process—we refer to this process as fear management. Most of the workers interviewed seek to minimize immigrant families' fears, and we show that they employ four strategies to do so: providing knowledge, brokering services, doing dignity and status work, and learning culture.     

Effect of child protective services system factors on child maltreatment rereporting

This study examined how child protective services (CPS) systems respond to initial and subsequent reports in the context of child maltreatment rereporting and to what extent CPS system factors are associated with the risk of rereporting after controlling for abuse type and child and family factors. This study followed 67,243 families who were reported to the CPS agencies in seven counties in Florida for child abuse and neglect over a period of 5.4 years and found that 14,218 families had one or more child maltreatment rereports. Key findings include that CPS system factors were significantly different from initial report to subsequent reports. Five CPS system factors, reporting source, contact by CPS workers, investigative level at intake, postinvestigation services, and duration ofCPS involvement were significantly associated with the risk of child maltreatment rereporting. Multivariate analyses found that CPS system factors were substantially different for three categories ofrereporting, unsubstantiated rereports, substantiated rereports, and recurrence reports. Interpretations and implications for practice are discussed.     

Factors predicting placement of urban American Indian/Alaskan Natives into out-of-home care

American Indian/Alaskan Native children have disproportionately been placed into out-of-home care compared to White children in the child welfare system. What were the factors that child protective services (CPS) workers considered when deciding to remove a child from the home? Utilizing data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, this study examined out-of-home care factors for 2215 urban American Indian/Alaskan Native (AI/AN) and White children. In the urban sample, children from White families were younger and were more likely to be investigated for lack of supervision, while AI/AN families were investigated for physical neglect. In the placement regression models, urban AI/AN children came from homes where caregivers had greater alcohol, drug and mental health problems. Decisions by CPS workers to place AI/AN children may have been influenced by racial bias. A CPS system that acknowledges culture and race may reduce overrepresentation in placement. Efforts to work with AI/AN families prior to a child's removal may prove to be beneficial and less expensive.     

Early Childhood Maltreatment: Substantiation related to Family Risk and Intervention Factors

Child maltreatment interventions had been targeted on intervening parental factors among risk families. However, limited knowledge was known about possible interaction effects between certain family risk factors and such intervention factors. The present study used existing Child Protective Service (CPS) data to explore interaction effects between two family risk variables (child maltreatment pattern and domestic violence) and three common intervention variables (quality of parent–child connection, caregiver knowledge and caregiver skill) on child maltreatment substantiation. Findings showed good quality of parent–child connection, caregiver knowledge, and caregiver skill significantly predicted lower risk of child maltreatment. However, the significant effects were found only among families of minor child maltreatment pattern and were greater for non-domestic violence families. In all, findings of this study suggested that different intervention emphasis might be needed to work with families of more severe risk issues.Szu-Yu Chen and Maria Scannapieco are affiliated with Center for Child Welfare, School of Social Work, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington     

Actuarial risk assessment in child protective services: Construction methodology and performance criteria

Purpose

To prevent the recurrence of child maltreatment, actuarial risk assessment can help child protective services (CPS) workers make more accurate and consistent decisions. However, there are few published articles describing construction methodologies and performance criteria to evaluate how well actuarial risk assessments perform in CPS. This article describes methodology to construct and revise an actuarial risk assessment, reviews criteria to evaluate the performance of actuarial tools, and applies a methodology and performance criteria in one state.

Methods

The sample included 6832 families who were followed for two years to determine whether they were re-reported and re-substantiated for maltreatment.

Results

Both the adopted and the revised tools had adequate separation and good predictive accuracy for all families and for the state's three largest ethnic/racial groups (White, Latino, and African American). The adopted tool classified relatively few families in the low-risk category; the revised tool distributed families across risk categories.

Conclusions

The revised tool classified more families as low-risk, allowing CPS to allocate more resources to higher-risk families, but at the cost of more false negatives.     

Risk of maltreatment recurrence after exiting substitute care: Impact of placement characteristics

This study examines the recurrence of substantiated reports of maltreatment among children who have been placed in out-of-home care by child protective services, with particular attention given to the effect of placement characteristics. The sample consisted of 4120 children reported to Quebec CPS in 2003–2004 and 2007–2008 and removed from their homes. A survival analysis found that the overall risk of recurrence 5.3 years after intervention was 33%, but varied depending on the child's age. Cox regression analyses indicated that the number of moves and the number of different substitute homes experienced by the child did not predict CPS recurrence. However, for the youngest children, there was an association between the number of failed reunifications and recurrence. Other placement, service, and child factors were associated with recurrence and varied with the child's age. The results underscore the importance of preparing properly for exits from care and providing more support to families, especially those with young children, when they are reunited, as well as the importance of taking an age-based approach in efforts to reduce CPS recurrence.     

Risk assessment in child sexual abuse cases

Despite continuing improvements in risk assessment for child protective services (CPS) and movement toward actuarial prediction of child maltreatment, current models have not adequately addressed child sexual abuse. Sexual abuse cases present unique and ambiguous indicators to the investigating professional, and risk factors differ from those related to physical abuse and neglect. Incorporation of research on risk factors specifically related to sexual offender recidivism into existing CPS risk assessment models may improve the ability to assess the risk of future sexual maltreatment to children. This article reviews the literature on risk factors for sexual offense recidivism and discusses their relevance and application to CPS assessment models. An evidence-based model for assessing risk in child sexual abuse cases is proposed.     

Explaining heterogeneity in the child poverty rate among immigrant families: Differences by parental citizenship

Much of the debate about child poverty among immigrant families has centered on factors that place immigrant children at a high risk for poverty. What is missing in this debate and the literature is that children in immigrant families are economically heterogeneous and that children in naturalized families are doing as well as or better than children in native families in terms of economic status. To examine the heterogeneous economic status of children in immigrant families, this study compared children's poverty rates by parental nativity and citizenship status, decomposing demographic risk factors of child poverty. The results indicate that whereas lower parental education and employment status largely explain the relatively higher poverty rate among children in noncitizen families, higher parental education and employment rates and a lower rate of single parenthood explain why children in naturalized families have a lower rate of poverty than those in noncitizen families. Implications of these findings are discussed in detail.     

The Impact of Multiple Risk Factors on Young Children's Cognitive and Behavioural Development

The paper maps out 10 risk factors measuring deficits in parent–child interaction, family–child interaction and the home environment. The prevalence of risk factor combinations is quantified using the UK Millennium Cohort Study data. In 2001, 28 per cent of families with young children were facing two or more risk factors at age 9–10 months old. Each combination of multiple risk factors accounted for a very small proportion of all MCS families. Specific risk factors were associated with particular developmental outcomes at age 5 and with changes from age 3 to age 5, but all leading to worse outcomes. The great diversity of risk‐factor combinations and their very small prevalence make the tasks of identifying such families and defining eligibility for support very difficult for policy‐makers. These results support the large body of policy literature advocating early intervention to improve children's development.     

Child Care Preferences of Foreign-Born Immigrant Groups in California

This study using California Health Interview Survey 2005 Child Survey data presents disparities among three major immigrant groups' child care preferences. Asian immigrant families used a grandparent or a relative care and a preschool more than Latino and European immigrant families. Latino immigrant families used child care from a nonfamily member in the provider's home and Head Start more than Asian and European immigrant families. To understand the predictors of time spent in child care by California's immigrant children, a multiple regression analysis was run. Being a child from an Asian immigrant family, child's age, being a girl, and being a child from a single mother-headed immigrant family emerged as predictors explaining 17.2% of the variance in the amount of time spent in child care. Variations in child care usage among immigrant groups warrant concern and suggest a need for culturally sensitive child care programs for immigrants.     

“Basically,I look at it like combat”: Reflections on moral injury by parents involved with child protection services

This study considers any “moral injury” occurring among parents involved with the Child Protection System (CPS). Moral injury refers to the lasting psychological, spiritual and social harm caused by one's own or another's actions in a high stakes situation that transgress deeply held moral beliefs and expectations. The existing literature focuses on military contexts, but moral injury also may play a role in increasing the vulnerability of CPS clients who are threatened with loss of their parental rights and dissolution of their families. We administered a modified version of the Moral Injury Events Scale (MIES) (Nash et al., 2013) to 10 CPS involved parents. We then conducted in-depth, semi-structured, audio recorded individual interviews with parents to elaborate their responses to the MIES. Parents' MIES scores and interview elaborations suggest that some CPS-involved parents do experience moral injury. Moral injury was reported as a result of their own parenting behaviors, but also as a result of parents' involvement with professionals and within social systems that are charged with providing assistance to struggling families. For instance, some parents perceived professionals to be shaming, social services to be harmful and legal proceedings stigmatizing. Parents' reported reactions to morally injurious events included lasting feelings of guilt, shame and anger; and loss of trust in professionals. These responses impeded their perceived abilities to fully engage in services. If involvement in CPS places parents at increased risk of moral injury, then moral injury is a critically important construct for child welfare policy makers and workers to understand and address in the conduct of effective, ethical child welfare practice.     

Hauptschule, Realschule oder Gymnasium?

The article studies the educational placement of different ethnic groups in the German school system. Using a data set that was collected at six elementary schools in Baden-Württemberg the transition from primary to secondary schooling for immigrant and German families is analyzed. Regarding the extent of ethnic differentiation in the German school system, the paper addresses the question whether the observed differences in the transition rates between different ethnic groups continue to exist once the children’s educational performance is taken into account. The findings reveal that school marks are the central determinant of the transition. However, also after having controlled for school performance ethnic differences persist. Especially Turkish and Italian children show a considerably lower chance to get into one of the higher educational tracks. This ethnic disadvantage can only be observed with regard to the question whether a child attends the Hauptschule or not. Moreover, the impact of the average achievment level and the immigrant concentration in the classroom on the transition rates is analyzed. The results reveal no important effect for the average achievement level. In contrast, the analyses for the immigrant concentration show that with increasing percentages of immigrant children in the classroom the chances to attend one of the higher educational branches are considerably reduced. After controlling for immigrant concentration no significant ethnic differences persist.     

Child maltreatment dynamics among immigrant and U.S. born Latino children: Findings from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-being (NSCAW)

Latino children are the largest and fastest growing ethnic minority group in the United States, and the proportion of child maltreatment victims who are of Latino ethnicity has been growing since 2000. However, our knowledge of the characteristics, maltreatment patterns, and risk factors associated with maltreatment among immigrant and U.S. born Latino children and their families has been incomplete. The goals of this study are to establish the national prevalence of immigrant and U.S. born Latino children who come to the attention of child welfare systems in the United States; to expand our knowledge regarding the role of nativity in child maltreatment patterns among Latinos; and to determine if disparities in child maltreatment patterns and risks exist among Latino families using data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-being. Despite considerable risks, data indicate that immigrant Latino children are slightly underrepresented among children who present to child welfare systems when compared to the general population. Moreover, no significant differences were observed between immigrant children and U.S. born children with regard to substantiation patterns. However, significant differences emerged between the two groups in risk factors and maltreatment type, warranting further investigation.     

The Child Care Arrangements of Preschool-Age Children in Immigrant Families in the United States

This study examined the child care arrangements of children in immigrant families. Using data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), the study found great diversity in the child care arrangements of children according to their nativity status. Children in immigrant families, especially those in low‐income immigrant families, were found less likely to use centre‐based child care. Mexican, Asian, and other Hispanic children are also less likely to use centre‐based child care. Because quality centre‐based child care has been shown to benefit preschool‐age children and help prepare them for school, both scholastically and psychologically, less use of centre‐based child care among children in immigrant families compared to children in non‐immigrant families is a potentially troubling finding. Public policies promoting greater access to and more use of centre‐based child care, especially for low‐income immigrant families and two‐parent immigrant families, may make a significant difference to their children's long‐term adaptation, and their children's school readiness and achievement.     

Inadequate housing and the child protection system response

Involvement with child protective services (CPS) is common among families experiencing inadequate housing conditions. As with other issues of material deprivation, inadequate housing is an area where the distinction between neglect and poverty is difficult to ascertain, and the response of the child protection system to inadequately-housed families is largely understudied. This study uses a nationally representative sample of child protection investigations to explore the associations between two types of inadequate housing—doubling up and experiences of homelessness—and system outcomes. Specially, we identify that, after accounting for other risk factors, inadequate housing is significantly associated with the receipt of services, but not directly associated with either substantiation or case closure. Moreover, housing concerns may have a different association with case outcomes when interacted with other risk factors, specifically mental health and substance abuse, and domestic violence. Overall, results suggest that, while child protection workers do not view inadequate housing as neglect in and of itself, they do identify housing issues as a service need.     

Food neglect and maltreatment re-report

This study examines the time to re-report following the close of a maltreatment investigation for cases involving food neglect. Data on families of children 0 to 17 involved in Child Protective Services (CPS) investigations from a merger of the 2010 cohort of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW II) and the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) were used (n = 3580). More than half of the families had a history of CPS involvement, a third received CPS services, and one-in-ten families had their child place in out-of-home care following an investigation. After controlling for other types of maltreatment allegations and multiple covariates, families investigated for food neglect had a greater chance of being re-reported for a subsequent CPS investigations in a shorter length of time than families without an allegation of food neglect. While only a small percentage of families had a food neglect allegation, problems adequately feeding a child - whether due to severe poverty, inattentiveness, or abusive negligence - placed a family at a higher risk of a future CPS investigation.     

When practice and policy collide: Child welfare workers' perceptions of investigation processes

This qualitative study examines variability in practices surrounding Child Protective Services (CPS) investigations regarding the allegations of child maltreatment. Working under the auspices of a community-research collaboration with Department of Human Services officials, university researchers conducted a series of focus groups with CPS caseworkers in a state that was under court-ordered consent decree to improve child welfare investigations. Focus groups with caseworkers sought to better understand caseworkers' common investigative practices and their perceptions of best practices in conducting child welfare investigations. Two main areas were noted for improvement: (1) the need for ongoing training of CPS workers, particularly at the stage of initial intake of the allegations of maltreatment, and cross-training of police and hospital staff who regularly work with CPS, and (2) implementation of an improved risk assessment tool. These recommendations are discussed in detail.     

Post-investigation service need and utilization among families at risk of maltreatment

This study examined the relationship between different areas of family need and the utilization of home-based, post-investigation services (HBPS) following a child protective services (CPS) investigation. The sample consisted of 2598 families with children who remained at home after an initial CPS investigation between July 2006 and April 2011. Family need was measured in three areas (concrete, clinical, and educational) using the Family Assessment Form (FAF), and families received one or more of the following HBPS: case management, concrete, educational, and clinical services. Pearson chi-square analyses were utilized to identify significant areas of needs to be included in a final multivariate logistic regression for each HBPS while controlling for demographic characteristics.Numerous areas of family need were associated with receipt of services intended to address those needs. Specifically, concrete need related to financial conditions was met with concrete services, educational need related to child development (an indicator of parenting need) was met with educational services, and clinical need related to interactions between caregivers (a potential indicator of domestic violence) was met with clinical services. In contrast, caregivers with concrete need related to living conditions were less likely to receive both educational and clinical services. Findings from the study highlight that matching concrete needs to related services is relatively straightforward but that the match between educational and clinical needs to respective services is more complex. We discuss the complexities of matching different areas of need and HBPS following a CPS investigation and the importance of "bridging services" to engage families at risk of maltreatment in additional prevention services.