Homeless identities: enacted and ascribed

Homelessness has been a perennial concern for sociologists. It is a confronting phenomenon that can challenge western notions of home, a discrete family unit and the ascetics and order of public space. To be without a home and to reside in public places illustrates both an intriguing way of living and some fundamental inadequacies in the functioning of society. Much homelessness research has had the consequence of isolating the 'homeless person' as distinct category or indeed type of individual. They are ascribed with homeless identities. The homeless identity is not simply presented as one dimensional and defining, but this imposed and ill-fitting identity is rarely informed by a close and long-term engagement with the individuals it is supposed to say something about. Drawing on a recent Australian ethnographic study with people literally without shelter, this article aims to contribute to understandings of people who are homeless by outlining some nuanced and diverse aspects of their identities. It argues that people can and do express agency in the way they enact elements of the self, and the experience of homelessness is simultaneously important and unimportant to understand this. Further, the article suggests that what is presumably known about the homeless identity is influenced by day-to-day lives that are on public display.     

Educational Issues for Children and Young People in Families Living in Emergency Accommodation—An Irish Perspective

The article explores how homelessness may impact on the educational participation of children and young people in families living in emergency accommodation in Dublin. Many difficulties arise in terms of maintaining consistent schooling for children when they are part of a homeless family, including problems getting to and from school if living at a distance from their original schools, frequent changes in school and inadequate facilities and overcrowding in their temporary accommodation. Despite the many difficulties involved in maintaining children's regular school attendance, it is evident that school may represent the only stability for a child in an otherwise insecure and changing routine. Copyright © 2006 Children's Research Centre.     

Characteristics of homeless jail inmates: Implications for social work

This study set out to validate the hypothesis (belief) that homeless people were likely to commit minor offenses as solutions to their conditions. Jails, and maybe prisons, would provide three meals a day, a place to sleep, and minimal health care-especially during the winter months. Instead, the data did not support the hypothesis. Contrary to the reported practices of some homeless people in Colorado who are described as committing non-serious but timed offenses to go to jail, it found a homeless population in jail who give a literal interpretation to the political phrase the invisible people. They were not in jail because they were homeless, but instead they were in jail for serious crimes (murder, rape, drugs, robbery) and their homelessness was a side fact. Since it was not likely that this group would seek to address or resolve their homelessness, it was recommended that jail social workers identify their needs to them, track them into social welfare networks, with a designated contact person, prior to their release.     

Cold-related injuries in a cohort of homeless adults

People experiencing homelessness have an increased risk of cold-related injuries. This study determined the rate of emergency department (ED) visits for cold-related injuries among homeless adults and low-income controls in Toronto, Canada. Homeless individuals were recruited at shelters and meal programs. Age- and sex-matched controls living in low-income neighborhoods were selected. ED utilization was ascertained over 4-years of follow-up (2005–9) using administrative databases. A total of 16 ED visits for cold-related injuries were observed among 587 homeless men and 296 homeless women. The rate of ED visits was 6.7 (95% CI, 4.2–12.4) per 1000 person-years of observation among homeless men and 0.9 (95% CI, 0.03–5.6) among homeless women. ED visit rates were significantly higher among homeless men compared to low-income men (P?<?0.001) and significantly higher among homeless men compared to homeless women (P?=?0.03). Targeted public health interventions are needed to reduce the risk of cold-related injuries among people experiencing homelessness.     

Homelessness as One Component of Housing Instability and Its Impact on the Development of Children in Poverty

The number offamilies with children living in poverty and experiencing housing instability and homelessness has increased dramatically over the last two decades. Current public policy decisions will lead to further increases. Understanding the impact of this instability on the emotional, behavioral, and cognitive development of children is imperative. Few studies cn'tically examine the effects ofinstability on both domiciled and homeless children. This research examined the effects of homelessness and housing instability on 133 children 8 to 12 years of age living in poverty. Results indicate that whether a child is currently homeless is not as significant as overall stability which may have a long ranging effect on a child's future development.     

Homelessness as one component of housing instability and its impact on the development of children in poverty

The number of families with children living in poverty and experiencing housing instability and homelessness has increased dramatically over the last two decades. Current public policy decisions will lead to further increases. Understanding the impact of this instability on the emotional, behavioral, and cognitive development of children is imperative. Few studies critically examine the effects of instability on both domiciled and homeless children. This research examined the effects of homelessness and housing instability on 133 children 8 to 12 years of age living in poverty. Results indicate that whether a child is currently homeless is not as significant as overall stability which may have a long ranging effect on a child's future development.     

An Analysis of Atlanta's Ordinance Prohibiting Urban Camping: Passage and Early Implementation

In November 1996, the Atlanta City Council passed an ordinance to prohibit certain Urban Camping behaviors on public lands. This paper analyzes the development, passage, and early implementation of Atlanta's Urban Camping and Improper Use of Public Places ordinance. The ordinance prohibits lying down, sleeping, regular meal preparation, and storing belongings on public property. The ordinance is controversial because it criminalizes behaviors of homeless individuals who have no private property and therefore no choice but to perform tasks necessary to life on public lands. The ordinance's passage in Atlanta is at least partly the result of a post Olympic private sector growth in power that capitalized on growing concerns about public safety and urban economic vitality. During its first year, the ordinance disproportionately impacted homeless persons. Arrests occurred primarily in parks and during daytime, summer hours. Arrests trends reflect continuing tension between Atlanta's various users of public space.     

Adverse Life Experiences and Homelessness Among Adolescents: an examination of the conditions for convergence

Abstract

There are two factors that limit our knowledge of the risk factors associated with homelessness among runaway adolescents, namely (1) the samples used are often composed of youth homeless service users and/or youths living on the streets (visible homelessness), whereas most adolescents in fact use “private” resources (hidden homelessness), and (2) failure to use an adequate control group to identify risk factors associated specifically with homelessness. Our study compares the characteristics of two groups of youths under the supervision oftheyouth protection system, according to the presence or absence of periods of homelessness. The results throw light on the factors underlying the shiftfrom “at risk” to “homeless”, showing that youths with experience of homelessness are more likely to have been placed in substitute home environments, have experienced significant relationship difficulties with one of their parents (deterioration ofthe parent/youth relationship and parental abuse) and to have been diagnosed with behavioral disorders. The findings suggest that the decision to place young people under supervision is based more on the dynamic between risk factors rather than on the existence of behavioral problems.     

Urban homelessness: The negotiation of public spaces

Homeless people usually live in the urban public space. Properly, public space does not belong to any peculiar social group. Public space is designed to let people circulate, and its borders change quickly. Homeless people who live in the public space break up its rules and transform it into their private environment. That is why homeless are often considered “unbearable people” by others. If homeless people want to go on living in the public space they must learn to be invisible to the others. If they want to survive in their “privatized” public space they must not intrude in everyday life routines. This article tries to visualize the symbols which flexibly define the borders between public and private space.     

Racial Differences Regarding Shelter and Housing in a Sample of Urban Elderly Homeless

A sample of elderly homeless persons in Detroit is discussed with an emphasis on distinctions between black and white racial strata. The analyses, based on a field survey conducted in 1988, reveal that several variables distinguish racial groups, including social relationships and kinship, frequency and duration of homelessness, and previous insitutional experiences. Economic differences were not found between black and white elderly homeless men who are the subjects of many urban sociological studies of skid row, while the black elderly homeless are presented as a newly emerged subset of homelessness.     

Characteristics of Homeless Jail Inmates: Implications for Social Work

This study set out to validate the hypothesis (belief) that homeless people were likely to commit minor offenses as solutions to their conditions. Jails, and maybe prisons, would provide three meals a day, a place to sleep, and minimal health care-especially during the winter months. Instead, the data did not support the hypothesis. Contrary to the reported practices of some homeless people in Colorado who are described as committing non-serious but timed offenses to go to jail, it found a homeless population in jail who give a literal interpretation to the political phrase “the invisible people.” They were not in jail because they were homeless, but instead they were in jail for serious crimes (murder, rape, drugs, robbery) and their homelessness was a side fact Since it was not likely that this group would seek to address or resolve their homelessness, it was recommended that jail social workers identify their needs to them, track them into social welfare networks, with a designated contact person, prior to their release.     

Identity in transition: how formerly homeless individuals negotiate identity as they move into housing

It is unclear what happens when stigmatized individuals undergo status transitions into non-stigmatized groups. This paper explores changes in housing status, identity, and social relationships over time and their impact on formerly homeless individuals. Drawing on longitudinal qualitative interview data collected over six months from seven individuals transitioning out of homelessness and into government supported housing, this paper examines identity changes during such a status shift. Analysis shows that individuals distanced themselves from both homeless and formerly homeless people, and connected with others through groups not affiliated with homelessness or shelter life. When exiting a stigmatized status, like homelessness, social distancing may be particularly important as it helps redefine the self as apart from that previously held stigmatized status. Implications for research and policy are discussed.     

Can we prevent deaths of homeless persons? Police led public health approach to prevent homeless deaths

Abstract

Research on homeless populations demonstrates that homelessness in itself is an independent risk factor for death. However, there is a dearth of detailed data on homeless decedents and the situations surrounding their deaths. This lack of knowledge, a desire to understand how and why homeless individuals were dying, and a sentinel event death led the Indianapolis Metropolitan Police Department Homelessness and Panhandling Unit to partner with a local researcher and begin conducting homeless death reviews. The approach is modeled after the evidence-based, public health approach of the Fetal and Infant Mortality Review process (FIMR). The FIMR model is a systematic approach to understanding system gaps and obtaining insights into the factors that resulted in homelessness and ultimately death. This article reports on the process to develop this unique multi-agency, police-led review of homeless deaths in Indianapolis, Indiana and resulting recommendations for action to decrease these deaths.     

Homelessness in Ottawa County Michigan: The “Gap” Population

Abstract

Homelessness has gained increasing attention since the 1980s in the United States. And the numbers of individuals and families experiencing homelessness are growing, with a 20,000 person, or 3% increase, from 2008 through 2009 (“State of Homelessness,” 2011). In spite of persistent investigation and activism on how to prevent and end homelessness, there is not agreement on what causes homelessness or how to stop it (McNamara, 2009). What is apparent, however, is that the homeless population is not homogenous. Therefore, the standard models of service, whether from governmental or non-governmental organizations (NGOs), end up neglecting the needs of portions of the population of people who face homelessness. Governmental and non-governmental service providers have recognized the existence of the unique sub-populations of people who are homeless and are attempting to understand and meet the needs of people outside the prevailing understanding of homelessness. This project works with a collaborative of such service providers through a multiple methodological approach to generate better understanding on the two key areas necessary to create models of service for people who are in the “gap” subsector of the homeless population. First, investigation was undertake to learn systematically who is included in the “gap” population among the homeless community, or, in other words, what traits those who continue to cycle in and out of homelessness, and thus are part of this “gap” population, share. Secondly, the project explores what organizations are currently serving these people, and how are they doing so. In other words, this project also ask what are the trends or practices that exist nationally and locally for serving people who fall into this category of homelessness? Findings suggest central traits including mental illness, substance abuse and a history of incarceration as factors spanning members of the “gap” population. Though there are caveats and practices to be avoided, these people are surviving or even thriving through the service primarily of faith-based non-governmental organizations, unfettered by the policy and funding constraints of governmental entities.     

Family homelessness in Britain: More than just a housing issue

This article offers an analysis of family homelessness in Britain and makes suggestions for change and development in both policy and practice. In Britain, family homelessness too often has been defined solely as a housing issue. The author asserts that this approach ignores the evidence that it is a complex problem in which not only economic and political, but also personal and social, factors play significant roles. The widespread failure to recognize the broad range of needs and problems experienced by homeless families seriously limits British vision and creativity in developing potential solutions. The article sets forth a number of policy recommendations, including developing comprehensive housing and service programs for homeless families; adding an intensive service component to existing homeless-at-home programs; emphasizing homelessness prevention; better utilizing persistently vacant housing; better utilizing the private rental sector; and exchanging Britain's present national commitment to temporary accommodation for an ongoing commitment to build sufficient affordable housing. These recommendations are based on the author's experience as an Atlantic Fellow in Public Policy at the Department of Social Policy and Social Work at the University of Oxford and on her 10 years of work with homeless families in the United States.     

A Social-Epidemiological Five Year Cohort Study of Homeless Families

Summary

There are significant social investments in families uprooted by homelessness. There are no data clearly delineating types of families helped, and how long help has sustained them. Computer technology was utilized to track eight hundred and seventy-five homeless families who received networked services from both public and private providers in a case managed family shelter from 1983 to 1987. Discussed are secondary data in case files and primary data from field interviews on longitudinal residential history, employment, familial and demographic changes, and service needs.

Policy questions focus on current residential stability and community reintegration.     

Are there homeless youth in my community? Differences of perception between service providers and high school youth

While teen homelessness, like all homelessness, is increasing, there have been few solid estimates of the actual number of teens effected. A twofold methodology to count homeless teens was used in the Seacoast region of New Hampshire and Maine. Social service agencies were contacted to obtain a count of homeless adolescents, and over 3000 high school age teens were surveyed in the seacoast of New Hampshire and southwestern Maine to identify how many were homeless. By using different definitions of homelessness, it was found that a minimum of 5% of all teens in high school reported that they had been homeless sometime during the past year. When using a broadened definition of homelessness, it was found that 20% of the teens regularly stayed with others. However, this experience was not identified by social service providers, who reported that teen homelessness simply was not a problem in their communities. In order to more accurately describe the phenomenon experienced by teens, it is proposed that the term homelessness should be replaced with a more inclusive word, such as housing distress.