Social support at work and its relationship to absenteeism

Abstract

In this study, the impact of psychosocial work characteristics on illness and work absenteeism has been examined. The study group consisted of 133 civil servants (33 men and 100 women) with a mean age of 43 years (range 21-65 years). Psychosocial work characteristics, social support, quality of life, work absenteeism, psychosomatic and gastrointestinal symptoms were assessed by means of questionnaires. Five different work support or functions were identified by factor analysis: appraisal support, belonging support, instrumental support, emotional support and supportive atmosphere. The analysis showed that work absenteeism was associated with lower belonging support and a less supportive atmosphere. Furthermore, psychosomatic symptoms were associated with lack of support at work, measured as belonging support, instrumental support and supportive atmosphere. Gastrointestinal symptoms were associated with lack of belonging support and lack of social integration outside work. A bad general health status was associated with lack of insrumental support. The association between work absenteeism and social support at work was confirmed in multivariate analysis with control for confounding factors. In this analysis, high work strain and low social support were associated with a lower quality of life, which in turn was associated with increased absenteeism. Although there are well-known difficulties in drawing causal conclusions from cross-sectional studies, it seems reasonable to conclude that social support at work is an important factor to take into consideration when analysing illness and absenteeism from work.     

Psychosocial work environment and psychosomatic health of nurses in Hungary

The main goal of this preliminary study was to detect the relative effects of sociodemographics, socio-economic factors and some variables of psychosocial work environment on an overall index of psychosomatic symptoms as an indicator of psychosomatic health in a sample of female Hungarian nurses. The participants were registered nurses and student nurses chosen at random from public hospitals ( n =420). Self-administered questionnaires contained various items on psychosomatic symptoms, sociodemographics, socio-economic variables, work schedule, the frequency of stressful situations and emotionally provoking problems at work, and social support from peers. Multiple regression models revealed that the frequency of stressful situations and emotionally provoking problems, and the lack of social support from peers, i.e. measures of psychosocial work environment, proved to be the only significant contributors to psychosomatic health complaints, after controlling for other variables in both registered and student nurses.     

Psychosocial work environment and psychosomatic health of nurses in Hungary

The main goal of this preliminary study was to detect the relative effects of sociodemographics, socio-economic factors and some variables of psychosocial work environment on an overall index of psychosomatic symptoms as an indicator of psychosomatic health in a sample of female Hungarian nurses. The participants were registered nurses and student nurses chosen at random from public hospitals ( n =420). Self-administered questionnaires contained various items on psychosomatic symptoms, sociodemographics, socio-economic variables, work schedule, the frequency of stressful situations and emotionally provoking problems at work, and social support from peers. Multiple regression models revealed that the frequency of stressful situations and emotionally provoking problems, and the lack of social support from peers, i.e. measures of psychosocial work environment, proved to be the only significant contributors to psychosomatic health complaints, after controlling for other variables in both registered and student nurses.     

The role of sense of coherence in well-being at work: Analysis of main and moderator effects

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the role of the sense of coherence (SOC) as a main effect on well-being and also its possible moderating role in the relationship between work characteristics and well-being in a sample of Finnish technical designers (n = 989). MANOVA/MANCOVA analysis with hierarchical decomposition was used so that the demographic variables (age, occupation gender) were controlled throughout. The results offered strong support for a main effect model of SOC: the stronger the SOC, the lower the level of psychosomatic symptoms and emotional exhaustion. Also, some support for a moderating role of SOC on the relationships between perceived work characteristics and well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being indicators. These results showed that the strong SOC subjects seemed to be better protected from the adverse effects of certain work characteristics (e.g. pressure of time). Furthermore, good social relations at work emphasized well-being among subjects with a very weak SOC, whereas these relations matered less in determining well-being outcomes in subjects with a stronger SOC. Finally, some work characteristics seemed to have salutary effects on well-being when accompained by a strong SOC and, on the contrary, pathogenic effects when accompained by a weak SOC.     

The role of sense of coherence in well-being at work: Analysis of main and moderator effects

Abstract

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the role of the sense of coherence (SOC) as a main effect on well-being and also its possible moderating role in the relationship between work characteristics and well-being in a sample of Finnish technical designers (n = 989). MANOVA/MANCOVA analysis with hierarchical decomposition was used so that the demographic variables (age, occupation gender) were controlled throughout. The results offered strong support for a main effect model of SOC: the stronger the SOC, the lower the level of psychosomatic symptoms and emotional exhaustion. Also, some support for a moderating role of SOC on the relationships between perceived work characteristics and well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being indicators. These results showed that the strong SOC subjects seemed to be better protected from the adverse effects of certain work characteristics (e.g. pressure of time). Furthermore, good social relations at work emphasized well-being among subjects with a very weak SOC, whereas these relations matered less in determining well-being outcomes in subjects with a stronger SOC. Finally, some work characteristics seemed to have salutary effects on well-being when accompained by a strong SOC and, on the contrary, pathogenic effects when accompained by a weak SOC.     

Managerial support for basic psychological needs,somatic symptom burden and work-related correlates: A self-determination theory perspective

Somatic symptom burden, or the experience of physical symptomatology without a medical explanation, is related to functional disability and poor quality of life. The consequences of somatic symptom burden extend beyond the individual and affect society, as manifested in higher medical utilization and lower job productivity. Using self-determination theory, we posited that employees' perceptions of managerial support for basic psychological needs may be associated with lower levels of somatic symptom burden among employees, in part because such contexts promote autonomous self-regulation (a type of motivation) at work. Also, we posited that somatic symptom burden among employees would explain some of the relations of managerial need support and autonomous self-regulation at work to indices of work-related functioning, namely emotional exhaustion, turnover intention and absenteeism. Results from 287 Norwegian employees confirmed these hypotheses. These findings not only identify a theoretical mechanism that may explain (in part) the origin of somatic symptoms, but also offer a model by which social-contextual and motivational factors affect important work-related outcomes. These findings also bespeak the importance of developing workplace interventions that provide support for satisfaction of the basic psychological needs.     

Mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals and their relation with exhaustion and engagement at work: The roles of emotional and instrumental support

The results of two cross-sectional studies (N = 220 and N = 258) indicate that employees' work-related mastery-approach goals (i.e. the striving to improve one's performance at work) were positively associated with work engagement. Further, this relationship is explained by high levels of instrumental support. In contrast, employees' work-related mastery-avoidance goals (i.e. the striving to avoid performing worse than one aspires to) are positive predictors of job detachment and fatigue. The relationships between mastery-avoidance goals and these detrimental work outcomes are explained by low levels of perceived emotional support. Altogether, these results suggest that workers with mastery-approach goals tend to invest in their social work environment by establishing instrumental exchange relationships. Such relationships are considered functional for task performance and explain the positive relationship with work engagement. Employees who hold mastery-avoidance goals, on the other hand, tend to withdraw from the social structure of the workplace which explains the negative relationship with emotional support. In turn, given the lack of emotional support, psychological detachment and fatigue may emerge. These results are discussed in relation to the surging interest in the social mechanisms that result from the pursuit of achievement goals.     

The relationship of work stressors, coping and social support to psychological symptoms among female secretarial employees

A conceptual framework is advanced that assumes that psychological symptoms emerge within multiple contexts, such as the workplace, and are influenced by the interplay of individual and situational risk and protective factors over time. This framework was utilized to examine the impact of work and work-family role stressors, coping, and work-related social support on psychological symptoms among 239 female, secretarial employees in the USA, using both cross-sectional and longitudinal structural equation models. Work stressors and avoidance coping were viewed as risk factors, and active coping and social support as protective factors. Work stressors contributed substantially to increased symptoms, primarily through a direct pathway in the cross-sectional model, but also indirectly to both Time 1 and Time 2 symptoms (4 months later) via pathways through active and avoidance coping. In both models, avoidance coping also predicted increased symptoms. Avoidance coping also served to partially mediate the relationship between work stressors and symptoms in the cross-sectional model, but not in the longitudinal model. Active coping was related to fewer psychological symptoms in both models, thereby reducing the negative effect of work stressors on symptoms. Likewise, work-related social support served an indirect protective function by contributing to lower levels of reported work stressors and greater use of active coping. Work stressors but not active coping mediated the relationship between social support and symptoms. Implications for future research and workplace interventions are discussed.     

Job stress, social support, job satisfaction and absenteeism among offshore oil personnel

The major aim of this study was to examine how job stress in the offshore working environment may affect workers experience of strain. This study also analyses both the main and moderator effect of social support on the association between job stress and strain. The association between strain and absenteeism is also analysed. The analyses are based on a self-completion questionnaire survey among employees on offshore oil installations in the Norwegian part of the North Sea (n = 1137). The data collection was carried out in 1994. A similar study was conducted in 1990. Job stress was found to be associated with job dissatisfaction, as well as experience of strain. Social support from a supervisor had a main effect on strain. Some evidence of the moderating effects of social support were found. The employees who had been absent from work experienced most strain. It is concluded that job stress predicted job dissatisfaction and strain. In turn, strain and absenteeism were associated with each other. These results suggest that improving organizational and social factors should be the focal area in health promotion in the offshore oil industry.     

ENOP: Organizational issues in hospitals

Abstract

The major aim of this study was to examine how job stress in the offshore working environment may affect workers experience of strain. This study also analyses both the main and moderator effect of social support on the association between job stress and strain. The association between strain and absenteeism is also analysed. The analyses are based on a self-completion questionnaire survey among employees on offshore oil installations in the Norwegian part of the North Sea (n = 1137). The data collection was carried out in 1994. A similar study was conducted in 1990. Job stress was found to be associated with job dissatisfaction, as well as experience of strain. Social support from a supervisor had a main effect on strain. Some evidence of the moderating effects of social support were found. The employees who had been absent from work experienced most strain. It is concluded that job stress predicted job dissatisfaction and strain. In turn, strain and absenteeism were associated with each other. These results suggest that improving organizational and social factors should be the focal area in health promotion in the offshore oil industry.     

Mental load and work stress as two types of energy mobilization

A conceptual framework is presented in which mental load and stress are regarded as two distinct biobehavioural states in the work environment that differ in energy mobilization, mood and coping strategy. The framework combines two types of theory that are based on human performance research using laboratory tasks on the one hand and applied research in the work environment on the other. A high workload is regarded as an important but not a critical factor in the development of stress symptoms. Even under unfavourable conditions it is possible to work intensively and to be highly activated without feelings of strain or psychosomatic complaints. In contrast, working conditions that provide few possibilities for control and little social support or are associated with reduced well-being and increased health risks. The two states differ in activation, coping style and mood. A proper distinction is important not only for theory building but also for the reconstruction of the work environment. It may lead to recommendations that aim to enhance the work efficiency of employees while reducing the probability that stress responses will occur.     

Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Family Supportive Supervisor Behaviors (FSSB)

Due to growing work-family demands, supervisors need to effectively exhibit family supportive supervisor behaviors (FSSB). Drawing on social support theory and using data from two samples of lower wage workers, the authors develop and validate a measure of FSSB, defined as behaviors exhibited by supervisors that are supportive of families. FSSB is conceptualized as a multidimensional superordinate construct with four subordinate dimensions: emotional support, instrumental support, role modeling behaviors, and creative work-family management. Results from multilevel confirmatory factor analyses and multilevel regression analyses provide evidence of construct, criterion-related, and incremental validity. The authors found FSSB to be significantly related to work-family conflict, work-family positive spillover, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions over and above measures of general supervisor support.     

Different strategies for managing the work non-work interface: a test for unique pathways to work outcomes

Scientific evidence linking employers' efforts to help workers to manage the work non-work interface to actual outcomes at work remains scarce. In this study of 200 women employed in a Canadian school district, a research model was devised to explain how two strategies for managing the interface may affect stress symptoms, absenteeism and turnover intention. Several features distinguish this model from earlier models of the work non-work interface. That is, two directions of work non-work conflict, a mediator between the strategies and work outcomes, are specified, each strategy is set to relate directly to only one direction of conflict, and each direction is set to relate directly to stress symptoms and either absenteeism or turnover intention. LISREL analysis supported the superiority of the research model to a general model incorporating more common conceptualizations of the work non-work interface.     

The effects of JDC model on burnout and work engagement: A multiple interaction analysis

This study investigated the moderating effects of functional social support (emotional and instrumental support) on the relationship of job demand control with burnout and work engagement. In total, 297 frontline employees from a hotpot restaurant franchise in China were surveyed. The results indicated emotional support, such as caring and inspiration, mitigated the adverse effects of high demand/low control on burnout and work engagement. Instrumental support, such as giving suggestions and solving problems, only mitigated the adverse effects of burnout. Further, the high demand/low control/low emotional support work condition was the most unfavourable for work engagement and burnout; while high demand/low control/low instrumental support was the most unfavourable condition for burnout. The theoretical and managerial implications of this research have been provided to gain a deeper insight into functional social support in the job demand control model.     

Hassles, hardiness and absenteeism: Results of a 3-year longitudinal study

In this 3-year longitudinal study of 229 full-time employees, the authors investigated the association between hassles, two measures of personality hardiness, and absenteeism verified from medical personnel records and self-reported hospitalization owing to injury and illness. Using stepwise multiple regression analysis, hassles, but neither of the hardiness measures, significantly predicted absenteeism when controlling for psychological well-being and relevent demographic variables over the 3-year period. The alternative measure of hardiness, but not any of the original Kobasa personality hardiness scales, predicted self-reported hospitalization for injury and illness. Little evidence for the predicitve validity of the Kobasa personality hardiness components, or composite hardiness score, existed for either absenteeism or self-reported hospitalization in this study. These findings support the concept that the current conceptualization, measurement and use of the original Kobasa hardiness scales should be re-evaluated.     

Hassles,hardiness and absenteeism: Results of a 3-year longitudinal study

Abstract

In this 3-year longitudinal study of 229 full-time employees, the authors investigated the association between hassles, two measures of personality hardiness, and absenteeism verified from medical personnel records and self-reported hospitalization owing to injury and illness. Using stepwise multiple regression analysis, hassles, but neither of the hardiness measures, significantly predicted absenteeism when controlling for psychological well-being and relevent demographic variables over the 3-year period. The alternative measure of hardiness, but not any of the original Kobasa personality hardiness scales, predicted self-reported hospitalization for injury and illness. Little evidence for the predicitve validity of the Kobasa personality hardiness components, or composite hardiness score, existed for either absenteeism or self-reported hospitalization in this study. These findings support the concept that the current conceptualization, measurement and use of the original Kobasa hardiness scales should be re-evaluated.     

Organizational changes at a postal sorting terminal—their effects upon work satisfaction, psychosomatic complaints and sick leave

This paper describes a longitudinal study evaluating organizational changes at a postal sorting terminal in Sweden. One hundred postal workers were followed up for 1 year after the changes were put in place. Information about psychosocial factors, sleep disturbances and gastrointestinal complaints were collected by questionnaires administered at the onset of the changes and at 8 and 12 months later. Sick leave during the 1-year follow up was compared with that during the year before the changes were introduced. A significant increase in skill discretion and in authority over decisions occurred during the study period. The reported increase in skill discretion and authority over decisions correlated with a reduction in difficulties with sleep and with gastrointestinal complaints. Changes in reported contact with team mates and superiors also correlated with changes in the reporting of sleep difficulties and gastrointestinal complaints. There was a significant reduction in sick leave. The results indicate that the organizational changes improved the quality of work and at the same time reduced sick leave and psychosomatic complaints.     

Psychosocial predictors of health status

This prospective study examined, in a sample of male and female adults, the relationship between specific psychosocial factors and health status. Measures of stress, health habits, social support, Type A behaviour, and coping style were collected for 203 professional employees in a large aerospace organization in 1988. One year later a follow-up questionnaire assessing self-reported physical illness and job burn-out was administered resulting in a final sample of 95 employees. When adjustments for age, sex, education, and initial psychological well-being were made, perceived stress, physical exercise, and an avoidant coping style significantly contributed to predictions of physical illness in multiple regression analyses. Employees who possessed less hardy appraisals of work/life and expressed greater Type A behaviour reported significantly more fatigue and exhaustion one year later. Type A individuals also reported being significantly less sensitive and caring towards others. Finally, individuals who perceived less stress and expressed more cognitive hardiness reported significantly greater work/life satisfaction. Overall, the data supported the view that psychosocial factors may be differentially associated with diverse physical and psychological health outcomes.     

Exploring work- and organization-based resources as moderators between work–family conflict,well-being,and job attitudes

Abstract

In modern Western life it is difficult to avoid work–family conflict. Therefore the resources that might reduce its negative outcomes on well-being and job attitudes come into focus. Our study contributes to the work–family conflict literature by exploring the indirect (moderator) and direct role of three work- and organization-related resources, i.e., job control, family supportive climate, organization-based self-esteem (OBSE), in the work-to-family conflict and well-being/job attitude relationship. Theoretically, the study tested the recently developed Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model in the Scandinavian context. Data for the study were gathered from three differing Finnish organizations (health care district, ICT company, Cardboard mill; n=1252). In line with the predictions of the JD-R model, job demands (time- and strain-based work-to-family conflict) were more robustly associated with strain-based outcomes (physical symptoms), whereas job resources (job control, family supportive climate, OBSE) were more strongly linked to motivational-based outcomes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment). Both job control and family supportive climate moderated the relationships studied; high job control and family supportive climate buffered against the aversive effects of work-to-family conflict on well-being and job attitudes. These indirect effects also varied in relation to the independent, moderator, and dependent variables. However, OBSE did not operate as a buffering factor, although it showed significant direct effects. From a practical viewpoint, our findings suggest that job control and family supportive climate are resources that help employees to reduce the negative effects related to work–family conflict.     

Psychosocial stress and job satisfaction in female office employees with and without neck-shoulder symptoms

The objective of this research performed in a Finnish occupational health care setting was to describe the annual prevalence of neck and shoulder symptoms in female office employees and to test whether or not these symptoms were associated with psychosocial stress, job satisfaction and health locus of control. The subjects consisted wholly of female office employees (n = 232) at one local bank and three insurance offices, chosen on a voluntary basis. The annual prevalence of disturbing neck-shoulder symptoms among female office employees was 43.3%. An association of these symptoms with psychosomatic symptoms, poor general job satisfaction and its two subdimensions, work content and perception of the healthiness of the working environment, was noticed. The subjects with neck-shoulder symptoms had a significantly higher score of feelings of external control (fatalism) than those without symptoms. The results lead to the conclusion that neck-shoulder symptoms are common amongst female office employees. These symptoms are associated with some psychosocial stress factors and job dissatisfaction. In future, it would be important to pay attention to these factors when trying to reduce the prevalence of neck-shoulder symptoms in office work.