Inequity at work: Its measurement and association with worker health

Abstract

This paper considers the extent to which stress-induced illness can be regarded as a personal injury that could give rise to civil action for damages against employers in the UK. It outlines the results of a brief survey of personal injury solicitors, which indicates that claims are already being initiated by employees who allege they have suffered a stress-induced illness. The potential for claims within industrial tribunal cases that have already been decided is also examined. Consideration is given to the hurdles that litigants will have to surmount, such as proving that their condition was in fact caused by some feature of their working conditions, showing that it was foreseeable that they would suffer a stress-based injury, and demonstrating that their employer was in some way at fault. This leads to a questioning of what employers can do to protect themselves from such claims, or at least defend them successfully. The paper points out that success is likely to depend heavily upon the quality of expert medical opinion, and also upon policy conditions that may influence those adjudicating on such cases. It is concluded that the cost of losing claims may be significant, and that employees who ignore the warning signs do so at their peril.     

Defined contribution--the future for health care

Employers are seeing breathtaking health care premium increases. As action-oriented people, they are not going to cough up additional money to pay for these rate increases. The real question is what solution might employers move to? The most logical answer is defined contribution--a way that employers could give employees health benefit funding that resembles what they have already done in pension funding. Today, facing massive cost pressures from their health care premiums, many employers are wishing that they could create or use the equivalent of a defined contribution plan for health care. The next major evolution of defined benefit health financing needs the full-scope functional equivalent of a 401 (k) administrator to make the concept work--someone to give employers the tools needed for employees to make meaningful choices. Up until now, no one has been able to give consumers meaningful data about health care and health benefit alternatives. A viable 401 (k) health administrator will need to offer an array of choices that will work for all players.     

What drives alignment between offered and perceived well-being initiatives in organizations? A cross-case analysis of employer–employee shared strategic intentionality

This study investigates the conditions of alignment between an organization's business strategy and the well-being initiatives (WBIs) offered to employees and employees' perceptions of the latter. We conducted a comparative study on the conditions of alignment between offered and perceived WBIs in three companies with different business strategies. Findings highlight that the alignment between offered and perceived benefits depends on what we label as “shared strategic intentionality”: (1) how employers use their understanding of the organization's business strategy to craft WBIs and (2) employees' attributions about why their employers offer WBIs the way they do and of the broader understanding of the organization's business strategy. We contribute to the strategic HRM literature by proposing an integrative position with regard to the macro (i.e., employer-focused) and micro (i.e., employee-focused) research traditions. Our position has the advantage of looking at employers' intentions and at employees' attributions of intentions simultaneously, and unravels the central role of business strategy in shaping their alignment. From a practical standpoint, not only do we bring a more nuanced understanding of the strategic HRM challenges faced by employers and employees in settings with different business strategies, but we also initiate a discussion about the traps and best practices associated with configuring effective WBIs in organizations.     

Work and religious faith: How people of faith relate to their employers

This article focuses on the connection between the religious faith of employees and their relationships with employers. There are two models for how religionists understand their role in the world: they can either try to model behavior not common in a secular world or infiltrate the structures of society in the hope of bringing about social change. Most employees tend to be infiltrators. Further, employees tend to internalize the values of their employers. But it may well be that the moral and religious beliefs of employees can benefit employers by providing the latter with access to different perspectives. In particular, the long-range perspective common to religionists may be helpful to corporations that tend to focus on short-term considerations.     

Adverse Health Experiences,Environmental Attitudes,and Pesticide Usage Behavior of Farm Operators

Water pollution from agricultural pesticides continues to be a public concern. Given that the use of such pesticides on the farm is largely governed by voluntary behavior, it is important to understand what drives farmer behavior. Health belief models in public health and social psychology argue that persons who have adverse health experiences are likely to undertake preventive behavior. An analogous hypothesis set was tested here: farmers who believe they have had adverse health experiences from pesticides are likely to have heightened concerns about pesticides and are more likely to take greater precautions in dealing with pesticides. This work is based on an original survey of a population of 2700 corn and soybean growers in Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania using the U.S. Department of Agriculture data base. It was designed as a mail survey with telephone follow-up, and resulted in a 60 percent response rate. Farm operators report experiencing adverse health problems they believe are associated with pesticides that is equivalent to an incidence rate that is higher than the reported incidence of occupational pesticide poisonings, but similar to the reported incidence of all pesticide poisonings. Farmers who report experiencing such problems have more heightened concerns about water pollution from fertilizers and pesticides, and illness and injury from mixing, loading, and applying pesticides than farmers who have not experienced such problems. Farmers who report experiencing such problems also are more likely to report using alternative pest management practices than farmers who do not report having such problems. This implies that farmers who have had such experiences do care about the effects of application and do engage in alternative means of pest management, which at least involve the reduction in pesticide use.     

Globalization, Social Identities and Employment

On the basis of social identity theory, we predict various outcomes of current reactions against globalization which have important implications for the management of employees. Globalization and its associated developments have added impetus to two social trends: increases in inequality and in individualism. Inequalities have increased both between and within nations, whilst individualism is increasingly apparent in social life in general, and in organizational life in particular. It is argued that individualism has led to a preference for personal identities over social identities, but that these are not always satisfying because they are often based upon consumerist values. Moreover, inequalities have resulted in feelings of injustice. Consequently certain social movements have increased in popularity. The most important of these are religious fundamentalism, nationalism and single–issue politics.
Increasing numbers of employees have at least one of these social identities central to their selves. Social identity and self–categorization theory suggest certain hypotheses about the likely implications for employment. First, to the extent that these social identities are salient for employees in the work situation, they will maintain the beliefs, values and norms associated with their identity at the expense of organizational beliefs, values or norms which are incompatible. Second, they will further the interests of their own category at the expense of other social categories of employee. Third, they will fail to differentiate between individuals within their own category, and between individuals within other categories. The implications of these hypotheses, if supported, for organizations are then explored. Finally, certain preventative strategies, also based upon social identity theory, are described.     

Occupational stress,rescue workers and English law

Abstract

This paper shows how two strands of English case law, one establishing liability to compensate for shock suffered by those at the scene of disaster, and the other concerned with physical injury suffered by rescuers, were brought together in the 1960s to provide a remedy for a rescuer suffering from what the law describes as ‘nervous shock’. It further traces the development of employers' liability in this context, but finds that the law provides few examples of the contractual duty of employers to protect employees generally against stress that may cause psychological injury. It points out that there is no case law on the liability of employers for stress suffered by rescue workers, whether professional or otherwise. It notes that law reports give little guidance as to the medical evidence judges require to persuade them that nervous shock has been suffered. Finally, it spells out that EC-inspired regulations could now be used to require employers to assess, and take steps to control, stress to which their employees, including rescue workers, are exposed.     

Zur Aktualität des Kompetenzbegriffs und zur Bedeutung der Kompetenz-entwicklung für das Coaching

The popular use of the term “competence” and the significance of competence development in coachingThe term “competence” is frequently used by employers, employees, trainers and authors alike, though in many cases the concept behind this term might differ considerably. But what does competence really mean, how does competence differ from other concepts like qualification, ability and skill and what is essential in developing competencies? If competence is seen as a disposition of self-organization, it helps people to solve unknown and difficult requirements based on their knowledge. The basic aim of coaching is the development of job-related competencies. Particularly social and personal competencies can be highly improved and enlarged by coaching. Thereby the coach takes the role of a consultant, who assists the coachees during their learning process and supports them with appropriate methods and tools.     

Criteria for evaluating qualitative studies

Many countries are becoming increasingly reliant upon an aging workforce. Yet, much literature positions older workers as ‘last resort’ employees, held in low esteem by employers whose preference for youth extends into decision-making about workplace engagement and support. As part of a broader study on maintaining the competence of older workers, we investigated the extent to which a group of employees in Australia aged 45 or more perceived they were discriminated against because of their age, including access to training, promotion opportunities and job security. Against expectations arising from the literature, informants reported little in the way of explicit age-related bias in their employment, opportunities for advancement and further development. Although the informants have particular characteristics and featured paraprofessional and professional workers, the contrast is noteworthy between what is reported in the literature and often premised on surveys, and our data were based on interviews. The findings indicate a need to be wary of making easy generalizations about the extent to which older workers per se are discriminated against in the workplace, while at the same time acknowledging that such discrimination exists, and perhaps for particular kinds of workers. In addition, we found a range of nuanced responses that suggest there are tensions between discriminations policies and practice that are a challenge for human resource development professionals.     

A Case Study Examining the Effectiveness and Cost of Incentive Programs to Reduce Staff Absenteeism in a Preschool

Most employers provide some number of paid sick leave days for their employees. If employees use their sick leave days by calling in sick on days they are feeling well, productivity (in terms of either goods or services) may be reduced. In this study, conducted at a preschool, productivity was defined as the number of children enrolled each month. In baseline, the 13 full-time employees were absent 4% of the time and 75 children were enrolled. The effectiveness and cost of two voluntary incentive programs designed to reduce employee absenteeism were examined for 4-½ years in a single case experimental design. The absenteeism of employees who volunteered to participate in the incentive program was .7% and overall absenteeism during the incentive programs was 2-½% while costs remained constant. Twenty-six percent more children were served. Employees preferred monetary to non-monetary incentives.     

The high cost of low wages: Economic scarcity effects in organizations

Due to current economic circumstances (e.g., stagnating wages, increasing material aspirations, mounting student debt), an increasing number of employees are prone to experiencing economic scarcity, defined here as the perception that one has fewer financial resources than one's needs require. In this paper, we focus primarily on an under-studied population in the organizational sciences: The working poor—employees who hold jobs but do not earn enough to sustain a reasonable standard of living for themselves and their dependents. Taking into account recent research suggesting that scarcity can have profound psychological consequences, we argue that organizations have a vested interest in reducing feelings of financial deprivation among its employees because the psychology of scarcity has the potential to spill over into organizational functioning. Furthermore, we assert that most organizations’ approaches to managing low-wage work are not only ineffective at reducing the spillover effects of scarcity on organizational outcomes, but also increase their endurance because they do not account for the behavioral consequences of financial deprivation. As such, we present more sustainable initiatives through which organizations can reduce scarcity among its employees. Finally, we discuss ways in which organizational researchers can become more involved in relevant public policy debates.     

Capitation and informatics

When physicians, hospitals, and allied health professionals bill for services they render, their information processing requirements are relatively simple, at least compared to those of capitated organizations. When payers (insurers or employers) accept financial risk for the health care services of beneficiaries, they have usually invested in claims processing, membership tracking, and, under managed care, utilization review and provider profiling systems. But payers, for the most part, have not invested in electronic collection of clinical information about beneficiaries, nor have they tended to keep all claims they have processed in electronic form for study after accounts are settled and payments disbursed. In this article, we will explore why informatics is so important to capitated organizations and why payers that have traditionally taken financial risk for insuring the health care costs of populations are also learning about the importance of informatics.     

Meaningful work at a distance: A case study in a hospital

Having a positive impact on other people's lives typically increases the likelihood of regarding one's work as meaningful. In some settings, however, employees have little or no contact to those who experience the impact of their work. Our paper examines how such distance affects these employees' construction of their work as meaningful. We present the findings of an in-depth case study of medical laboratory workers who do not typically interact with their patients. Drawing on interviews and observational data, we identify three sensemaking practices through which employees overcome the physical and perceived psychological distance to patients: assembling various pieces of information about the patient, sharing patient-related stories with colleagues, and relating themselves to patients and their medical problems. We also find that overcoming distance to patients can result in emotional stress, which is why some employees prefer staying at a ‘safe’ psychological distance. Our paper contributes to the meaningful work literature by examining how actors make work meaningful when they are physically distant from their object of work. We also contribute to a critical understanding of meaningful work by showing how efforts to render one's work more meaningful can intensify stress and emotional tension.     

Becoming Flexible: Self-flexibility and its Pedagogies

Much of the debate on flexibility has remained at a stubbornly macro, demographic level without looking closely at individual attempts to become more flexible. This paper argues that the debate on flexibility has been dominated by attention to the structural side, looking at flexi-time and part-time contracting, for example, to the neglect of what we call self-flexibility through self-reflexivity and self-transformation. The paper begins to redress this imbalance drawing upon two different cases which examine specific forms of self-flexibility: feedback and personal malleability and risk-taking through experiential learning. Drawing upon sociological research, we seek to examine critically the ways in which self-flexibilities are taken up and pursued by employees in their attempts to remain employable and their gendered implications.     

Knowledge Building: Developing Employees Through Education

Is it enough for an organization to develop the total individual? Beyond technical expertise and skills necessary to perform jobs, employees who are encouraged to learn are more willing and able to meet the needs, goals, and objectives of the organization. These employees who are will-rounded transition what they have learned into the workings of the organization and for the sake of the growth and development of the organization. Allowing employees to learn, organizations create a workforce capable of applying all the benefits of learning to the growth of the organization. Whether a corporation develops its own university, creates an alliance with traditional educational institutions or creates a virtual university, it gives the employees the opportunity to learn and develop. As Peter Drucker said in a 1994 interview, the growth industry of the future is the education of adults. The education and the development of executives and the workforce are a new commodity and organizations that support education will be placed at a distinct competitive advantage over organizations that do not. Imagine a workplace filled with employees who have realized self-satisfaction, employees who can of gather information, analyze information and make decisions. Imagine a learning organization consisting of employees with greater understanding of corporate politics, employees who are motivated and employees who are persistent in pursuing goals. Is it worth the expense to increase employees' knowledge through education? Is it worth the expense to develop employees to increase productivity and obtain financial goals for the shareholders and stakeholders? I think any organization not willing to invest in an employees' education is an organization that is `running a fever' and an organization that may have difficulties competing globally in the next millennium.     

Becoming who you are.

It's difficult to predict success based only on educational background and career experience, important as they are. More is needed. And one of the aspects that needs to be evaluated is the degree of self-actualization. Self-actualized individuals have worked out their personal issues well enough that their personal life no longer has to intrude into their professional lives and actions. In a word, they are free people. In career terms, self-actualized people are "company people," but not "yes-people." They are executives who have freed themselves to be able to internalize the growth, development, and strategic planning of their organization--because they are able to rise above personal considerations, to shed emotionalism, and see more clearly. Some methods you can use to figure out where you stack up are: Conduct a self-evaluation; identify role models; do what is called "a 360 evaluation."     

Talking about work stress: Discourse analysis and implications for stress interventions

This study used discourse analysis to explore the way in which employees understand work stress. Twenty-two female clerical workers in a Canadian city participated in focus group meetings where they talked about and made sense of their experiences of work stress. The women's accounts were analysed using discourse analysis methods (i.e. an examination of how talk is constructed). The findings revealed that talking about being stressed provides a socially acceptable way of expressing discomfort and regaining a sense of importance that is lost through feeling under-valued and under-appreciated in the organization. In contrast, admitting to being unable to cope with stress was considered to be 'abnormal'. The stress discourse fosters a sense of helplessness and ambiguity by not acknowledging external influences on clerical workers' experiences, such as their place within the power structure of the organization, and by limiting their sense of agency and control over problems experienced at work. The implications of these findings for organizational culture and interventions are discussed. For example, employers are encouraged to be conscious of the messages being sent to employees about how negative emotions or distressing experiences at work are to be addressed (i.e. how 'stress' is to be managed). Recommendations are made for future research using discourse analysis, such as the examination of alternative discourses that aim to improve conditions at work.     

Networking--getting to know more people

One of the first and often the most difficult tasks for job seekers is increasing their networks--the number of people they know. A large percentage of people get jobs because people knew them and thought they would be good at it. People must know who you are and what you do in order to recommend you for a job. Networking should be an ongoing process, so that when you need a new position, you have people you already know that you can contact.     

Organizational disidentification and change-oriented citizenship behavior

This study proposes that the extent to which employees have disidentified with their organization might reduce the likelihood that they undertake change-oriented citizenship behavior, though this negative link might be buffered by employees’ access to two personal resources (self-enhancement motive and benevolence) and two contextual resources (citizenship climate and job involvement). To test these theoretical predictions, the study gathers survey data from employees in the telecommunications sector in Canada. The results show that prior organizational disidentification curtails voluntary efforts to improve current organizational practices, but this effect is weaker when employees (1) find it important to make a good impression on others, (2) are benevolent toward others, (3) perceive that their organization encourages voluntary efforts, and (4) are highly involved with their jobs. These four factors accordingly diminish the risk that the extent to which employees have cognitively separated from their employer escalates into a reluctance to add to organizational effectiveness on a voluntary basis.     

Health care costs: saving in the private sector

Robeson offers a number of options to employers to help reduce the impact of increasing health care costs. He points out that large organizations which employ hundreds of people have considerable market power which can be exerted to contain costs. It is suggested that the risk management departments assume the responsibility for managing the effort to reduce the costs of medical care and of the health insurance programs of these organizations since that staff is experienced at evaluating premiums and negotiating with third-party payors. The article examines a number of short-run strategies for firms to pursue to contain health care costs: (1) use alternative delivery systems such as health maintenance organizations (HMOs) which have cost-cutting potential but require marketing efforts to persuade employees of their desirability; (2) contracts with third-party payors which require a second opinion (peer review), a practice which saved one labor union over $2 million from 1972 to 1976; (3) implementation of insurance coverage for less expensive outpatient care; and (4) the use of claims review. These strategies are compared in terms of four criteria: supply of demand for health services; management effort; cost; and time necessary for realized savings. Robeson concludes that development of a management plan for containing health care costs requires an extensive analysis of alternatives, organizational objectives, existing policies, and resources, and offers a table summarizing the cost-containment strategies that a firm should consider.