话语与制度:洪武君臣关系的重塑与评论

君臣关系是中国古代政治史的核心问题之一,主要指向君主与臣僚间的权力分配与运作状态,双方互动方式及其牵涉的道德伦理观念。洪武一朝是明代君臣关系的生成期,关于君主身份合法性、君臣权力关系格局,以及君臣相处之道的形成过程深刻影响了后来的国家政治与政治文化,且与元明易代、明初封建诸王、废相等重大事件密切关联。梳理洪武君臣关系形成过程中的话语形态与制度推演,可见该过程主要指向两个维度:君主身份合法性的文化确认和君主集权制度框架的构建。此外,洪武君臣关系作为一种王朝早期历史记忆,在此后二百余年间,被士人群体反复评说,构成以君臣在国家体制中权力与角色为中心的不断反思,甚至发生对皇权专制极端化倾向批判的思潮。     

韩学极盛与秦二世而亡

秦朝时期,韩学极盛。韩非子的《五蠹》《孤愤》等名篇在秦王嬴政(秦始皇)时代便传入秦国,从而开启了"韩学"的实践与研究之门。嬴政对韩非子的欣赏,秦朝的政治实践、制度创设以及李斯与秦二世之间有关韩非子思想的讨论,构成了韩非子学说与秦朝的历史交集。韩非子思想确实对嬴政、秦二世、李斯均产生过影响,然而,秦二世、李斯对韩非子思想的理解,多为偏颇与片面的理解,甚至是完全错误的理解。秦朝政治实践背离了韩非子的基本政治原理。从最严格的标准来看,韩非子强调君权至尊,尽管他在理论上强调了君主应该遵守君道,但在实际政治领域却又未能提出有效约束君权的措施,势必导致君主滥权。作为一个思想家,韩非子对秦朝暴政及二世而亡,应该负有一定历史责任,但仅局限于作为一个特定历史时代的思想家所应承担的责任。有效约束君权,并非先秦时期的思想家所能解决的政治理论问题。     

我国古代监察制度的动力机制分析

我国古代监察制度以专制王权为中枢,以儒家伦理的内在约束和法家法制的外在强制激发君臣僚属对整体利益的认同和责任感,加上人民群众革命的震慑,形成了一个能够产生很大聚合力的动力机制。这种动力机制在一定程度上起到了稳定封建统治秩序的作用。但这个动力机制有几大不可克服的矛盾,致使其效力只能很有限地发挥,甚至其功能完全丧失。其一,君制臣的绝对性和臣制君的相对性导致皇帝成为败坏纲纪的始作俑者和不受任何约束的独裁者。其二,权势与社会公正的矛盾,使监察制度无法免于自身腐败的趋势。其三,本身就是腐败政体的封建娩治,其监察制度不能容纳人民群众扬廉抑贪的强烈要求,而终被人民群众连同整个封建制度一起推翻。     

试论“身体”视域下的先秦诸子“大一统”权力结构观

先秦诸子以“身体”论君臣具有一定普遍性，体现着人们对理想权力结构运行的理论建构。先秦诸子君臣“身体”论对理想权力运行虽有“无为—有为”“分化—协助”“指令—执行”等模式建构之别，但均共享着“大一统”权力结构观。这一权力结构观认为，权力结构各组织部分应是“分职一体”的，君是“分职一体”权力体系健康运行的关键，臣则是君权的分化、延伸或执行，体现出君权优先、整体利益至上的政治体制设计理念。诸子君臣“身体”诸论不仅源远流长，而且对后世思想产生了深远的影响，它既是中国传统政治走不出专制的重要思想原因，也是近代中国接纳西方民主观念的重要思想基础。     

论熊十力的“韩非学”研究——兼及“了解之同情”何以可能?

历代儒家往往视法家人物为其思想敌人而痛诋不止。以学派立场为归属的研究和判断,极容易出现意气用事以及以态度之争代替观点之争的趋势,实难对法家人物及其思想做到"了解之同情"。作为现代新儒家代表人物之一的熊十力,本着学术的良知以韩非子思想的题中应有之义为出发点,对韩非子人格做出高度肯定的同时,也从各方面深刻剖析了韩非子思想中的真意,许多新颖独到的见解发此前儒者之所未发,足堪为后来研究法家及韩非子者借鉴。熊十力这一现代大儒的"韩非论",不仅在思想史、文化史以及学术史上具有重要价值,而且对于当今学界反思韩非子研究以及在评价古人如何做到"了解之同情"方面,也具有重要的启发意义。     

“有君无臣”论:明清之际崇祯君臣的历史评价与君臣观流变

明清之际的"有君无臣"论,专指对于明代最后一朝崇祯君臣的评价。"有君无臣"论将君与臣做对立观,构成了对明亡事实的一种解释模式。然而在崇祯朝的庙堂之上,君臣之间以政治批评为指向,便时常有这样的论调。至清朝入主,明亡已成事实,遗民们虽怀着对故国旧君的怀念,但对"有君无臣"的结论却持了更多的保留意见。与此相对照的是清初统治者对"有君无臣"论的高调张扬,遗民与清廷两相对比构成了易代之际独特的舆论氛围。崇祯君臣、明遗民与清统治者对"有君无臣"的持论差异,反映出明末清初君臣观的冲突与流变。     

经济责任审计应成为经济社会改革的催化剂

<正>党的十八届三中全会强调,要"加强和改进对主要领导干部行使权力的制约和监督,加强行政监察和审计监督"。李克强总理在听取审计署审计工作汇报时强调,审计工作要成为深化改革的"催化剂"。经济责任审计作为主要领导干部权力运行制约和监督体系的重要组成部分,既要成为主要领导干部权力监督的利器,让权力在阳光下运     

《韩非子》中历史传说的编排和运用——兼谈中国古代早期"说体"叙事作品与历史传说的关系

在先秦诸子散文中,<韩非子>对历史传说的搜罗和收录近乎是穷尽式的.同时,他运用历史传说的方式又多种多样,把历史传说在作品中的功能尽量发挥到极致.通过对<韩非子>中的"说"字进行辨析,指出以此为篇名的作品与历史传说的关系;总结出<韩非子>历史传说的运用方式、不同文本形态、编排方式和行文规则上的法家特色以及韩非子文学主张与创作实践、文本形态及审美效果之间的疏离与悖反.     

天人感应的灾异谴告说与谏议——以顺治朝为例

董仲舒在论证君权神授,以确保帝王权力至高无上的同时,为避免皇权的过分膨胀阻碍国家机器的正常运转,还提出了限制王权的灾异谴告说。天人感应理论把上天发生灾异现象与人君有过失行为联系起来,通过灾异示警,迫使统治者省察自身、广开言路;而臣子也会借此对皇帝的某些不当行为,以及当时亟待解决却一直悬而未决的一些具体问题提出谏言。通过顺治朝灾异发生时君臣的举动,就可以看出帝王因灾异下诏求言和臣工因灾异进言已成为谏议制度的内容之一。     

金代监察制度特点刍议

金代监察制度前后运行历时百余年。在这百余年的历史进程中,它除了完全承继了唐和北宋遗法,具有与以往历代监察制度相同的共性外,又由于特定的时空及具体国情的差异而又别具一格,另有特色。 一、首开“台谏合一”之门径 中国古代监察制度自秦汉以来,延宕至金已有千余年的历史。但一直据其“监督百司,纠察官邪”和“献可替否,廷争面折”之职权不同。而将监察制度的执行机构分为察官和言官两大系统。察官以御史台为主,言官以谏院最为重要。在金代之前,历朝历代的监察制度悉为台谏分立,各有专司,泾渭分明,不相侵权,其发展亦沿两条轨迹行进,互不…     

Considering Improvisation: Play,Transitional Space,and Discovery

This article explores the concept of improvisation in the therapeutic setting as a complex construction when elaborated in the idiom of jazz music. A composite clinical case is offered that illustrates an impasse and how improvisational thinking offers a way forward. Improvisation has recently been conceptualized through the metaphor of theater improvisation, dance, and rhythm. The therapeutic hour is considered an improvisational dialogue with the main theme (melody) and counter melodies, and harmonic possibilities that underlie the rhythmic pulse of the hour. Improvisation requires a reflective/interpretive process that draws on patterns, structures, and experiences reformulated in the relational field of the participants. The client initiates the call and response pattern, from which improvisation emerges as a mutual process of discovery. A more relaxed, receptive, and reflective posture extends Winnicott’s 1971 notion of play to integrate classic understanding and relational interaction.     

Objective Tests versus Subjective tests

objective test has only one correct answer, while subjective test has a range of possible answers. Because of this feature, reliability will not be difficult to achieve in the marking of the objective item, while the marking of the subjective items is reliable. On the whole, a good test must contain both subjective and objective test items.     

Comments on the National College English Test

College English Test is an important national test for Chinese college students, this paper introduces the distribution of scores, time of examination, and analyses the four parts in CET ,such as listening comprehension, reading comprehension, integrated testing, and writing based on testing theories.     

Social security reforms in Kenya: Towards a workerist or a citizenship‐based system?

With social security provisions in Kenya remaining under‐reported in the more recent literature, this overview covers recent reforms in key areas of the country's social security system. In the health sector and in old‐age pension provision social security is still mainly workerist (biased toward those in formal employment), and attempts to expand coverage have had limited effect only – cash transfer programmes, for instance, have been expanded but in practice they do not universally cover the entitled categories. Thus, although the Kenyan social security system now has a considerable pro‐poor social assistance component it remains biased toward those in formal employment, to the benefit of the highest income quintile.     

Abstracts of theses: Smith College School for Social Work,July 1954

Abstract

Many clients relate in ways that elicit emotional responses in practitioners and may also feel pressure to intervene when appropriate action is not yet clear. Practitioners must develop sufficient self-awareness so their own reactions do not interfere with the work they do with clients. Educators exhort their students to be self-aware, but locating methods that foster the capacity can be difficult. Infant observation is an elegant training model that helps to develop self-awareness. The method described here makes use of regular observation, supportive small groups, and repeated detailed examination of what is seen in training both generalist and specialized practitioners. It has become a prototype for the observational study of several kinds of specific populations. Because it attends to people in their own environments and demonstrates a flexible, reflective, multi-modal manner of information-gathering, infant observation is particularly useful in the education of social work practitioners.     

India's Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act: Assessing the quality of access and adequacy of benefits in MGNREGS public works

The extension of social protection to all has become a central policy objective, both nationally and internationally. A considerable number of middle‐ and low‐income countries have undertaken substantial efforts to extend social protection, while the international community reaffirmed its commitment to the extension of social protection through the adoption of the ILO Recommendation concerning National Floors of Social Protection, No. 202 (2012). This article reviews the legal provisions and the implementation of the Indian Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), legislated in 2005, and does so in the light of the more recent provisions of ILO Recommendation No. 202. Since its introduction ten years ago, MGNREGA has provided a source of income to rural workers, increased wage rates, achieved high female participation rates and created durable assets. India's local governance bodies, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), have been empowered and involved in the processes of planning and monitoring. However, despite successes, there have been considerable shortcomings in implementation. This article highlights two central themes: first, the innovative policy framework of the Act, which brings together rights‐based entitlements, demand‐driven employment, and citizen‐centred monitoring. Second, it assesses the accessibility and adequacy of benefits in the implementation of MGNREGA. We conclude that MGNREGA offers potential for South‐South learning, both in terms of policy‐design and implementation.     

From “Either‐Or” to “When and How”: A Context‐Dependent Model of Culture in Action

In this article, I outline a framework for the sociological study of culture that connects three intertwined elements of human culture (cultural motivations, resources, and meanings) and demonstrates the concrete contexts under which each most critically influences actions and their subsequent outcomes. In contrast to models that cast motivations, resources, and meanings as competing explanations of how culture affects action, I argue that these are fundamental constituent elements of culture that are inseparable, interdependent, and simultaneously operative. Which element provides the strongest link to action, and how this link operates, must be understood as a function of the actor's position within wider social contexts. I argue that on average motivations have the most discernable link to action within a social strata, cultural resources provide the strongest link across strata, and meanings have the greatest direct influence when codified and sanctioned. I then offer a reframing and synthesis that reintegrates previously “competing” theories of culture into a more holistic context‐dependent model of culture in action. Finally, I use evidence from prior empirical research, as well as new data from an ongoing ethnographic study of health behaviors among the aged, to show how various elements of culture are concretely linked to action in eight different social contexts. In doing so, I provide a roadmap for the transition out of the “either‐or” logic underlying much of cultural theory and reemphasize the importance of the classical sociological concern for “when” and “how” various aspects of culture influence action and outcomes in concrete social contexts.     

A Man Can be Destroyed but Not Defeated

Santiago,the main hero in the Old Man and the Sea is characterized as someone struggling against defeat. He has gone eighty-four days without catching a fish,the sail of his skiff resembles "the flag of permanent defeat." But the old man refuses defeat at every turn:he resolves to sail out beyond the other fishermen to where the biggest fish promise to be. He lands the marlin,tying his record of eighty-seven days after a brutal three-day fight,and he continues to ward off sharks from stealing his prey,even though he knows the battle is useless. He establishes a great hero:a man can be destroyed but not defeated.     

The gender gap in pensions in Latin America

Lower female lifetime labour market participation rates, greater interruptions during their working lives, and wage gaps contribute to create gender gaps in pensions at the time of retirement. The design of social security systems may reinforce or attenuate these gaps. This article provides new evidence on gender gaps in access to pensions and in pension income in four Southern Cone countries in Latin America and analyses their evolution between 2000 and 2013, showing significant improvements in both gaps, with differential patterns by countries. The decrease in the gender gap in pension income has been particularly significant in Argentina and Brazil. In both cases, the largest increases in pension values during the period correspond to the lowest income percentiles, where women are overrepresented. The application of redistributive policies in these countries, aimed at reducing poverty and inequality but not necessarily focused on gender equity, has had positive and probably unintended consequences in terms of reduction in gender gaps in pensions.