Widowhood and Spirituality: Coping Responses to Bereavement

SUMMARY

Nearly half of women age 65 or older are widows and nearly 70% of these women live alone. Because older women are three times more likely than their male counterparts to be widowed, widowhood has been labeled a primarily female phenomenon. This review article has two aims: (a) to discuss the impact of widowhood on the lives of older women and (b) to discuss how religion and spirituality may be used as coping methods for conjugal loss. After reviewing the literature the authors conclude that older women use religious coping as well as religious and spiritual beliefs and behaviors to facilitate positive adjustment to the loss of a spouse.     

Widowhood and Mortality: A Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression

The study of spousal bereavement and mortality has long been a major topic of interest for social scientists, but much remains unknown with respect to important moderating factors, such as age, follow-up duration, and geographic region. The present study examines these factors using meta-analysis. Keyword searches were conducted in multiple electronic databases, supplemented by extensive iterative hand searches. We extracted 1,377 mortality risk estimates from 123 publications, providing data on more than 500 million persons. Compared with married people, widowers had a mean hazard ratio (HR) of 1.23 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.19–1.28) among HRs adjusted for age and additional covariates and a high subjective quality score. The mean HR was higher for men (HR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.19–1.35) than for women (HR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.08–1.22). A significant interaction effect was found between gender and mean age, with HRs decreasing more rapidly for men than for women as age increased. Other significant predictors of HR magnitude included sample size, geographic region, level of statistical adjustment, and study quality.     

Cognitive adaptation and women's adjustment to conjugal bereavement

Conjugal bereavement is experienced by the majority of older women in enduring relationships. Although most experience considerable distress in the immediate aftermath of this loss, the majority adjusts over the course of time. The current study of self-selected participants applies the theory of cognitive adaptation in an attempt to distinguish between women who have successfully adjusted to the death of their husbands versus those who exhibit prolonged distress. Results of this study suggest that positivity biases in personally relevant information processing (i.e., self-deception, marital aggrandizement, dispositional optimism) are significantly associated with life satisfaction and the absence of psychiatric distress. The contribution of cognitive adaptation is maintained over and above that provided by personality variables (i.e., neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience). Intervention strategies to treat enduring distress among widowed women are considered on the basis of these findings.     

中国高龄老人丧偶和再婚的性别分析

1998年中国高龄老人健康长寿调查数据显示 ,高龄老人中有 92 3%女性和 5 8 4 %男性的婚姻状况为丧偶。女性高龄老人不仅丧偶比例在各个年龄组都高于男性 ,且曾经再婚的比例也大大低于同龄的男性老人。初婚丧偶发生在 6 0岁以后的老年人中 ,男性的再婚比例为 2 3% ,女性为 0 5 %。同时 ,各年龄组高龄老人的丧偶时期平均值也存在着显著的男女差别 ,女性的丧偶年数比男性老人长     

丧偶对中国老年人健康的影响:社会连结的调节作用北大核心CSSCI

中国作为人口老龄化发展速度最快的国家之一,正在迎来规模日益庞大的晚年丧偶群体。预计2050年我国60岁及以上的丧偶人口规模将达到1.18亿左右。近年来老年丧偶者的生活质量受到政府和学界的广泛关注。本文利用六期“中国老年人健康影响因素跟踪调查(CLHLS)”数据分析丧偶对我国老年人多种健康指标的影响以及社会连结在其中发挥的调节作用。研究发现丧偶会影响老年人的健康后果和健康行为。在健康后果方面,丧偶对老年人认知功能的影响具有显著的性别差异。丧偶降低了老年男性的认知功能,但在一定时期内提高了老年女性的认知功能。同时,丧偶会对老年人的心理健康产生负面影响。在健康行为方面,丧偶提高了老年女性参与体育锻炼的可能性和老年男性抽烟的可能性。此外,丧偶效应因丧偶前社会连结的不同而存在差异。婚姻质量较低的老年男性在丧偶之后IADL能力反而提高;经常打牌/麻将有助于抑制丧偶对老年男性和女性IADL能力的不利影响,同时也可以抑制丧偶对老年女性慢性病数量的增加作用;子女支持有助于抑制丧偶对老年男性心理健康的负面影响。     

Wearing the Garment of Widowhood: Variations in Time Since Spousal Loss Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults

We examine how the passage of time since spousal loss varies by social and demographic characteristics, using data from the University of Alabama at Birmingham Study of Aging. In multivariate analyses, African American race, female sex, lower income, and higher risk of social isolation had significant and independent associations with variation in time since spousal loss. African American women were at highest risk for long-term widowhood. Accurate characterizations of widowhood among community-dwelling older adults must consider variation in the length of time individuals are living as widowed persons and socioeconomic concomitants of long-term widowhood.     

Experiences of veterans' widows following conjugal bereavement: a qualitative analysis

This qualitative study analyzed the conjugal grief experience of veterans' widows. The narratives yielded several themes, including the decreased self-reported symptoms of distress when widows reported having positive social support without negative social support, the development of an ongoing relationship with their deceased spouses with a mechanism for creating meaning from their loss, and the assumption of a new identity and new roles and responsibilities. Widows who ascribed a belief that external forces control their life events and those who have children with psychosocial issues reported increased symptoms of distress related to their spouses' death.     

Gender,Widowhood, and Long-Term Care in the Older Mexican American Population

SUMMARY

The objective of this study is to examine the influences of gender on long-term care service use among older Mexican American widows and widowers. Our analysis is based on a sample of 773 widows and 183 widowers from the Longitudinal Study of Elderly Mexican American Health (H-EPESE). In this sample widows resemble widowers in terms of demographic and health characteristics. However, widows report more financial strain than widowers and a greater welfare dependency (SSI) and Medicaid use. Among those who suffered diminished health, widows were more likely than widowers to use community-based long-term care services whereas widowers were more likely to enter a nursing home. Widows also had more instrumental and socioemotional support than widowers. Serious cognitive and functional impairment, though, places widows and widowers at the same risk of institutionalization. We end with a discussion of the policy implications of these findings.     

Widowhood,family size,and post-reproductive Mortality: a comparative Analysis of three populations in Nineteenth-Century Europe

Researchers from a number of disciplines have offered competing theories about the effects oJ childbearing on parents 'postreproductive longevity. The "disposable soma theory" argues that investments in somatic maintenance increase longevity but reduce childbearing. "Maternal depletion" models suggest that the rigors of childrearing increase mortality in later years. Other researchers consider continued childbearing a sign of healthy aging and a predictor of future longevity. Empirical studies have produced inconsistent and contradictory results. Our focus is on the experience of widowhood, which has been ignored in previous studies. We hypothesize that the death of a spouse is a stressful event with long-term consequences for health, especially for women with small children. Data are drawn from historical sources in Sweden, Belgium, and the Netherlands from 1766 to 1980. Postreproductive mortality was highest among young widows with larger families in all three samples. Age at last birth had little or no effect. We conclude that raising children under adverse circumstances can have long-lasting, harmful effects on a mother's health.     

The importance of spirituality among gay and lesbian individuals

Religion is a conduit for expressing spirituality. Since most mainstream religions condemn any form of homosexuality one would expect that gay men and lesbians would have little to do with spirituality. Experts, however, believe that gay and lesbian individuals would especially benefit from spiritual nourishment because of the oppression they face. Using an instrument that measures spiritual well-being, this study investigated the spirituality of 93 gay and lesbian individuals. The findings revealed that respondents espoused high levels of spiritual well-being: how one relates to God (religious well-being) and how one feels about life (existential well-being). Those who identified with a formal religion and who attended religious services frequently espoused higher religious well-being. Respondents with a diagnosis of depression, on the other hand, espoused lower existential well-being. Multiple regression analyses revealed that existential well-being was a significant predictor of adjustment: having high self-esteem, accepting one's homosexual orientation, and feeling less alienated. In contrast, religious well-being was not a significant predictor of any measure of adjustment. These findings point to the importance of the existential aspect of spirituality among gay and lesbian individuals in determining adjustment. They also suggest that being well-adjusted does not entail being reconciled with a traditional religion or with a theistic belief.     

Confronting hate: heterosexuals' responses to anti-gay comments

An online diary study was used to examine the individual and situational variables that influence non-targets' verbal and nonverbal reactions and responses to sexually prejudiced remarks. Results indicated that anti-gay comments were extremely prevalent in a college setting and resulted in a range of reactions and behaviors. Confrontation of the perpetrator was predicted by the perceived offensiveness of the comment, perceived social pressure to confront, and the number of close same-sex attracted friends. Additionally, those who confronted felt more satisfied with their responses than those who did not confront. Implications for future research and prejudice reduction strategies are discussed.     

亚洲人口老龄化的发展、挑战以及应对策略

人口老龄化已经成为亚洲国家必须面对的一个十分紧迫的问题,与西方相比,亚洲国家的老龄化问题更加复杂,这种复杂性不仅在于过快的老龄化速度,更重要的是亚洲在经济、制度发展方面远未成熟,同时老龄化又存在城乡失衡、性别比例失衡等现象。老龄化对亚洲未来经济发展带来了挑战,亚洲内部的产品内分工链、区域生产网络等维持亚洲竞争能力的区域合作模式很大程度上是建立在人口红利基础上的,老龄化的发展将使得亚洲传统发展模式无法持续。面对这些挑战,亚洲国家必须迅速采取有效措施积极应对。     

Subjective well-being and coping with adversity

This paper is concerned with identifying coping strategies which are effective in minimising the impact of adverse life events on subjective well-being and, in particular, on negative affect.Data are drawn from the 1983 and 1985 waves of the Victorian (Australian) Quality of Life Panel Study (N=734). Respondents completed a life events inventory (Henderson et al., 1981) and were then asked to identify the most adverse event they had dealt with in the last two years. They responded to a coping strategies inventory (Moos et al., 1984), indicating how they had dealt with this event.     

Policy responses to low fertility and its consequences: A global survey

Fertility at or below replacement level now characterizes 64 countries with populations totalling 44 per cent of that of the world. Many of these countries have total fertility rates below 1.5 and some have recorded below-replacement fertility for decades. It appears likely that some countries will eventually adopt policies aimed at raising fertility. Accordingly, the paper examines the effect of past policies of this type, and briefly looks to the future.     

丧偶对老年人孤独感的影响:基于家庭支持的视角

文章运用2002年至2014年五期"中国老年健康长寿因素追踪调查"(CLHLS)数据,探讨中国老年人晚年丧偶和孤独感之间的因果关系以及家庭支持在老年人的丧偶和孤独感之间所发挥的调节作用。文章使用个体固定效应模型清除不随时间变化的不可观测因素,从而降低模型估计的遗漏变量偏误。研究结果表明:第一,无论对于老年男性还是老年女性,丧偶都会显著提高其孤独感水平,丧偶对于年纪更轻的老年人具有更严重的影响。随着时间的推移,丧偶对老年人孤独感的影响会相应减弱。第二,在丧偶之后,再婚有利于降低老年人的孤独感水平。在控制了其他因素后,再婚老年人的孤独感水平显著低于近期丧偶和长期丧偶的老年人,而与初婚老年人相比没有显著差异。第三,与子女、孙辈同住有利于抑制丧偶老年人的孤独感。从长期来看,"三代同堂"的居住格局最有利于降低丧偶老年人的孤独感。第四,向子女提供经济支持会提高近期丧偶老年女性的孤独感水平,而子女提供经济支持对于丧偶老年人孤独感的作用不显著。文章揭示了重建和改善家庭支持对于保护丧偶老年人精神健康的重要意义,指出再婚、与子女同住和减少子女的"啃老"行为等可能有助于降低丧偶老年人的孤独感。     

Mortality following conjugal bereavement,Belgium 1991-96: The unexpected effect of education

This paper examines excess mortality following spousal bereavement by time since bereavement, sex, age, and education. The main hypothesis challenged is that higher education buffers the harmful effects of spousal loss. Using a log-rate model, death-rate ratios (widowed/married) are estimated for 49,849 and 126,746 Belgian widowers and widows and an equal number of non-bereaved controls matched to the bereaved on their socio-demographic characteristics. The hypothesis that the more educated suffer less excess mortality is not supported. Although higher educational levels are associated with lower mortality in general, they do not alleviate the effects of bereavement. On the contrary, in the period immediately following spousal loss, the more highly educated seem to have more, rather than less, excess mortality. Three possible arguments are suggested to account for this: education-related differences in the partner-relationship, structural differences in the availability of appropriate social support, and cultural differences in potential support networks.     

Barriers and coping strategies of women with gestational diabetes to follow dietary advice

ObjectiveTo understand barriers and coping strategies of women with gestational diabetes (GDM) to follow dietary advice.DesignQualitative study.ParticipantsThirty women with GDM from the Winnipeg area participated. Each participant completed a Food Choice Map (FCM) semi-structured interview and a demographic questionnaire.Major outcome measuresUnderlying beliefs of women with GDM and factors that hinder following dietary advice.AnalysisQualitative data analyzed using constant comparative method to identify emergent themes of factors and beliefs that affected following dietary advice. Themes were categorized within the Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction.ResultsGDM women faced challenges and barriers when (1) personal food preference conflicted with dietary advice; (2) eating in different social environments where food choice and portions were out of control and food choice decisions were affected by social norms; (3) lack of knowledge and skills in dietary management and lack of a tailored dietary plan.Conclusions and implicationsQuick adaptation to dietary management in a short time period created challenges for women with GDM. Stress and anxiety were reported when women talked about following dietary advice. Tailored educational and mental health consultation with consideration of the barriers may promote dietary compliance and overall better health.     

Immigrant and native responses to welfare reform

We investigate the effect of welfare reform in the US on the employment and hours of work of low-educated foreign-born and native-born women. For foreign-born women, we investigate whether the effect of welfare reform differed by year of immigration. We also examine whether the immigrant provisions of welfare reform had a chilling effect on those who remained eligible for benefits. Results suggest that welfare reform induced low-educated women to increase their labor market attachment; reform had larger effects on the least educated native-born women and among foreign-born, larger effects on more recent arrivals. The chilling hypothesis is not supported.All correspondence to Robert Kaestner. The authors thank Lynn Karoly, Christoph Schmidt, seminar participants at the University of Illinois and New School University, and several anonymous referees for comments on a previous draft of this paper. Robert Kaestner is grateful to the Luce Foundation for partial support for this research. Responsible editor: Christoph M. Schmidt.     

Population responses to environmental change: looking back,looking forward

Population and Environment - Over the past two decades, population researchers have engaged in a far-reaching and productive program of research on demographic responses to changes in the natural...