A typology of supervision in child welfare: Multilevel latent class and confirmatory analyses of caseworker–supervisor relationship type

Based on survey data collected from 1460 public- and private-agency child welfare caseworkers in Illinois, this study examines the nature of child welfare supervisory relationships by empirically identifying a discrete set of modal caseworker–supervisor relationship types as defined by a combination of positive and negative supervisory support. This study also examines the degree to which differences in the nature of caseworker–supervisor relationships are attributable, respectively, to supervisors, supervisor–caseworker dyads, and agency settings. Results suggest the existence of qualitatively distinct caseworker–supervisor relationship types that coalesce into discrete mixtures of relationship types at the supervisory team level. In contrast, results suggest that little, if any, of the overall variability in supervisory relationship type is attributable to the agency level. Findings concerning the interrelationships among relationship type and caseworkers' job satisfaction and perceptions of their work environment underscore the salience of individual caseworker–supervisor dyads, and suggest the importance of relationship building as means to improve the effectiveness of supervision.     

Safety as a Fifth Dimension in Supervision: Stories from the Frontline

Child and family practice is recognised as a field of social work that has become increasingly complex. While evidence is growing in relation to effective supervision, there has been little research about the attributes of an effective supervisor, or the components of effective supervision. This paper reports on research undertaken in Victoria, Australia, which explored practitioners’ and supervisors’ experiences of effective supervision in this field. Data collection involved in-depth interviews with experienced supervisors and supervisees in order to explore the concept of effective supervision from participants’ perspectives. The data were systematically interrogated using a thematic inductive process, designed to enhance the voice of participants in the research. The study findings confirmed the complexity and centrality of the supervisory relationship, with the experience of a safe supervisory relationship proving essential. The importance of contemporary knowledge, leadership skills, and an enabling organisational and community context were also highlighted.     

Developing a Working Model of Cross-Cultural Supervision: A Competence- and Alliance-Based Framework

Despite numerous suggestions to integrate culture, diversity and social justice issues in clinical supervision, empirical studies on cross-cultural supervision indicate limited uptake of such recommendations. We suggest that a comprehensive model of cross-cultural supervision could benefit the field by guiding supervisors in this task. A working model is proposed based on a foundation of the supervisory alliance and a focus on social work practice competence, integrating strategies to promote self- and relational-reflexivity within the supervisory relationship. The model is comprised of four components: component 1: goal setting to contract on cross-cultural integration in supervision; component 2: active listening for cross-cultural markers; component 3: bonding through the supervisor’s self-reflexivity to foster the supervisee’s self-reflexivity; and component 4: working through tasks for cultural integration in supervision by modelling the supervisor’s relational reflexivity in case formulation and treatment to foster the supervisee’s relational-reflexivity.     

An exploration of the use of power in social work supervisory relationships in Hong Kong

Supervision is considered to be a determining factor in the quality of service to clients, the job satisfaction of social workers, and the level of professional development they achieve. How supervisors use their authority affects their relationships with subordinates, which in turn influences service outcomes. This case study reveals the micro-process of the interplay of power in the supervisor–supervisee dyad, the influence of cultural factors on attitudes toward hierarchical relationships, and subordination to authority in the supervisory dyad. Respondents who considered supervision to be counterproductive or disempowering employed tactics to hide their negative attitude, and concealed important cases and project materials, which hindered the disclosure of mistakes. Redistributing power in the current hierarchical supervisor–supervisee relationship could lead to fewer instances of game playing in the supervisory dyad and facilitate disclosure, which is important in ethical practice.     

On Parallel Process in Social Work Supervision

The recognition and study of parallel process in social work supervision offers both the social work supervisor and supervisee a rich learning opportunity at the moment when an impasse seems unworkable. The parallel process is an unconscious replication in the supervisory session of therapeutic difficulties which a supervisee has with a client. This replication may originate with the supervisor unwittingly modeling behavior that is then taken by the social worker into the therapeutic interaction with the client. This paper reviews the need for social workers to grasp the dynamics of the parallel process, discusses the literature for the historical development of the phenomenon, addresses supervisory methods that will uncover the process, and illustrates the supervisor's stages of exploration and modeling in addressing the parallel process.     

Male-Female Power Differences at Work: A Comparison of Supervisors and Policymakers*

This study estimates differences in access to power positions and the degree to which supervisors and policymakers exercise work power among women and men. The relative importance of sex and other relevant characteristics in determining the acquisition of supervisor and policymaker positions is assessed. Furthermore, the attainment of supervisory authority and strategic power of male and female supervisors and policymakers is analyzed. The results of logistic regression analyses suggest that regardless of other characteristics men have significantly more access to supervisor and policymaker positions than women. Nevertheless, ordinary least squares regression analyses demonstrate that once individuals are in supervisory or policy-making positions, sex is not an important determinant of the degree of work power. Additional results indicate that occupational status (evaluated by Duncan's Socio-Economic Index) but not sex segregation by occupation affects the acquisition of work power.     

Less assessment and more suggestions please: Factors contributing to effective supervision of counsellors at different experience levels

Abstract

Twenty-two supervisors and 60 supervisees working in community counselling services in Melbourne were asked to rate the importance of 46 supervisory behaviours to good supervision, as well as listing behaviours that contribute to and detract from good supervision. In general, supervisors saw good supervision as relating primarily to feedback to the supervisee, while supervisees were interested in learning new skills and gaining assistance with conceptualisation in supervision. The responses confirmed evidence of differing supervisee and supervisor perceptions of supervision seen in previous research of students' supervisory needs in America.

Differences in responses from supervisees in this sample to the American sample suggest some cultural differences and some differing needs attributable to different levels of experience. Responses in the current research support a developmental model of supervision; that supervisees have different needs as they gain experience. Applying a process model to behaviours believed to contribute to and detract from good supervision revealed that the bulk of responsibility for a good supervisory relationship is attributed to supervisors. Neither supervisors nor supervisees indicated a high level of supervisee qualities and skills that contribute to good supervision. This has obvious training implications.     

Teaching the Use of Self Through the Process of Clinical Supervision

In their efforts to learn the skills involved in the use of self, clinical social work supervisees are faced with the daunting task of integrating information coming not only from the patient but also from their own complex set of responses. The clinical supervisor serves a key role in guiding the trainee through this process. Grounded in contemporary psychodynamic theory, this paper discusses an approach to helping the supervisor model the use of self in the context of the supervisory relationship. A supervisory case example is used to illustrate.     

The Role of Supervisory Referral in Employee Assistance Programs

Abstract

A growing number of organizations offer Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) to help employees with their personal problems. Many organizations rely on their supervisors to help identify and refer troubled employees to the EAP for assistance, yet very little conclusive evidence exists regarding the factors that influence whether or not supervisors identify and intervene with troubled employees. A previous review of the literature (Nord & Littrell, 1989) found that the following variables were consistently related to referral: (a) degree of management support for the EAP, (b) gender of supervisor, (c) gender of subordinate, (d) existence of a supervisor network, (e) occupational category of the employees supervised, (f) social distance between supervisor and troubled employee, (g) supervisors' attitude toward their role in referral, and (h) supervisor knowledge of the EAP. However, results of some of the studies reviewed for the current paper were inconsistent with Nord and Littrell's (1989) findings. Additional research is needed in this area, including research on the effectiveness of EAP supervisory training, in order to provide guidelines for the administration of effective EAP programs.     

An exploration of social support as a factor in the return-to-work process

Despite evidence that inter-personal relationships are important in human resource management, little is understood about the nature of workplace social support in a disability context, or what features of support are important to the success of return-to-work programs. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore workplace disability support from worker and supervisory perspectives and to identify salient features for work re-entry. A total of 8 supervisors and 18 previously injured workers from a range of work units in a Canadian municipality were interviewed, and their views concerning supportive and unsupportive behaviours in work-re-entry situations were recorded and analyzed. A full range of social support dimensions were reported to be relevant, and were seen as arising from a variety of sources (e.g. supervisor, co-workers, disability manager, work unit, and outside of work). Respondents identified trust, communication and knowledge of disability as key precursors to a successful return-to-work process. Future research should explore the specific contributions of support to work rehabilitation outcomes as well as interventions to enhance available supports.     

A study of live supervisory phone-ins in collaborative family therapy: correlates of client cooperation

The behavior of five supervisors, 19 trainee family therapists, and 20 clients before, during, and after 88 live supervisory phone-in events was examined in this study to determine the correlates of client cooperation. Following supervisory phone-in conversations, client cooperation was associated exclusively with the presence and quality of the collaborative behavior shown by the therapist. Isomorphism between the behavior of the supervisor and therapist was not associated with subsequent client cooperation, nor was any particular category of supervisor behavior. Surprisingly, isomorphism between the quality of supervisor and therapist behavior preceded those events where client resistance occurred.     

The role of empathy in supervision

Empathy plays an important role in clinical supervision. It is the link between the client whose treatment is being supervised, the clinician/supervisee, and the supervisor. The supervisor uses an empathic capacity as well as theoretical knowledge to understand the clinical work and build the supervisory relationship. Often the progress of a case can be traced through the development of empathic understanding in the supervision. The transmission of empathy requires creativity and openness and is one of the major challenges in supervision. By analyzing the different uses of empathy in clinical supervision we can increase our understanding of the supervisory process.     

A clinical consultation model for child welfare supervisors

This article presents findings from a consultation project conducted by faculty from six schools of social work with approximately 150 child welfare supervisors over a two-year period. The purpose of the program was to assist supervisors with their roles as educators, mentors, and coaches for casework staff, specifically in relationship to case practice decisions. The consultation model, the development of the curriculum, the project implementation, and the results of the initial assessment are described.     

The therapy-supervision dialectic

It is widely agreed that supervision has an emotional load which should be dealt with in the supervisory relationship as means of increasing effectiveness in the learning process. This situation makes it difficult for the supervisor to keep adequate distance between supervision and therapy. Current literature on this subject offers no tools for this matter. This paper suggests a model that uses some basic ideas derived from Winnicott's thinking. Our model integrates the dynamic forces operating in the supervisory space and can be used as a compass to help the supervisor in his or her movements while preventing crossing the boundary between supervision and therapy.     

Supervising Social Workers in Involuntary Contexts: Some Considerations

ABSTRACT

This article outlines areas for reflection for those providing supervision to social workers working in involuntary and semivoluntary contexts. This includes clinical implications, impacts on social work identity, and potential impacts on the supervisory relationship itself. It suggests that there are some areas that could be considered for discussion and exploration that may be different in focus to other types of supervisory practice, encouraging supervisors to consider their own approach in response to the issues raised.

IMPLICATIONS

• Working in involuntary contexts raises specific challenges in relation to power and authority in practice, as well as a range of ethical dilemmas.

• Supervisors might wish to consider the issues raised with a view to exploring with their supervisees how working with involuntary clients changes their framework or approach.

     

THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG SELECTED SUPERVISOR,THERAPSIT, AND CLIENT BEHAVIORS*

This study examined the extent to which supervisory phone-ins were related to change in both immediate therapist behaviors and subsequent change in resistant behaviors of client family members. Of specific interest was whether the congruence of supervisor and therapist behaviors (referred to as isomorphism by some family therapy authors) would be related to immediate change in client resistance. The quality of supervisor's Support and Teach behaviors was foundj to be significantly related to the change in the quality of the threrapists' Support and Teach behaviors. Moreover, in instances where both supervisors and their supervises demonstrated effective Support and Teach behaviors, clients generally tended to either remain cooperative or become cooperative more frequently than when both effective supervisor and supervisee behaviors where not present.     

Strengthening Supervision in Systems of Care: Exemplary Practices in Empirically Supported Treatments

The last few decades have witnessed major growth in the evidence base on effective client interventions used by social workers and other health and social service professionals. As the pressure for service agencies to offer empirically supported treatments has been increasing, financial and time constraints have driven a decline in the frequency and amount of supervision provided within many of these organizations. While the reduction in staff supervision presents a challenge for effective implementation of all treatments, there are comprehensive empirically supported treatment models for clients that serve as exemplars of supervisory practice through their explicit requirements, processes and tools for supervision and supervisor development. After a review of the current status of supervision nationally, an implementation science-based approach is described, which builds organizational support for supervision and promotes optimal supervisory practice through training and consultation of supervisors and supervisees. The elements of this comprehensive approach, developed by the Yale Program on Supervision, are detailed. Supervisory policies, practices, and tools created by the developers of empirically supported treatments and similarly grounded in the principles of implementation science are offered as further examples of strategies for ensuring effective supervision.     

Supervision and social work students: relationships in a team-based rotation placement model

Social work has historically privileged one-to-one supervision in field education. However, in recent decades, the relentless pressure on organisations to innovate for efficiency gain has created an impetus to explore alternative placement formats. This article reports on how students and supervisors experienced their placement relationships in the context of one such alternative—a team-based rotation placement model where students routinely engaged in group and peer supervision as well as one-to-one supervision with various supervisors. A total of 128 Masters of Social Work students and 92 student supervisors participated in rotation placements across five hospitals over a three-year period; 2011–2013. The study adopted a mixed methods approach using online surveys and post-placement interviews each year. The findings suggest that, although both supervisors and students viewed the one-to-one supervisory relationship as pivotal, they experienced this relationship differently. Supervisors were more likely to highlight the interpersonal connection within the supervisory relationship as the primary vehicle for practice learning. Students were more likely to view their supervisory relationships as the conduit to the practice experiences that aligned with their placement goals. Ultimately, the study highlights the centrality of role and positioning when exploring perceptions and experiences of teaching and learning relationships on placement.     

Social work field education: believing in supervisors who are living with disabilities

Much of what is written by non-disabled authors about living with disabilities does not mirror people’s experiences or opportunities. Literature is often written about people’s abilities (or disabilities) rather than by or with people. Discourse about supervision of social work students can risk assuming that supervisors are people who do not identify as living with disabilities. This research is a co-operative inquiry into the experience of being an Australian social work student supervisor who is living with disabilities. The article extends the literature about being a social work field educator to include ability, and values the practice wisdom of experienced social workers including a current student supervisor who is living with a disability.     

Introduction to the Special Issues on the Supervision of Staff and Field Education of Students

Two Special Issues of the Clinical Social Work Journal have been dedicated to building on the social work discipline’s tradition and commitment to the supervision of staff and field education of students. These issues bring together contemporary theorizing, clinical supervisory and field education practice experience and wisdom, and research studies to contribute to the knowledge base for practicing supervisors and field educators. As the first of the Special Issues, this issue has been dedicated to the supervision of staff. In this Introduction, we share the salient aspects of the articles published, as they relate to contemporary social work supervision, relational considerations within the supervisory dyad, models of supervision for fields of specialization, as well as measurement and evaluation. Implications are shared, with highlights and connections for practicing supervisors made throughout.