中亚、突厥族群对文化学研究的意义

中亚地处东西方交通要道、丝绸之路的核心区域,突厥语族民族在这一区域中扮演了重要角色.通过回顾相关文化理论及对这一区域和族群文化的实证研究表明,人类文化的变迁是通过逐渐的"过渡段落"实现的,而中亚及突厥族群的文化进程为实现欧亚大陆的文明衔接与动态分布做出了重要贡献.     

丝绸之路上纺织业术语的东西方借用

丝绸之路上纺织业术语的东西方借用［法」Ｊ·哈米尔顿著牛汝极，王红梅译按语本文是世界著名突厥学家、汉学家哈米尔顿（ＪａｍｅｓＨａｍｉｌｔｏｎ）博士提交给于１９９４年９月３０日至１０月２日在塞浦路斯首都尼科西亚召开的“丝绸之路的语言与文化”国际专题讨论会...     

耕耘于维吾尔民族文化沃野——阿布都克里木·热合满民俗研究论著举隅及其理论贡献

民俗学家阿布都克里木·热合满教授在维吾尔民族文化沃野上勤耕30余年,成果累累,在维吾尔民俗民间文学研究、塔里木文化研究、突厥学研究,维吾尔古代文学研究和丝绸之路研究等方面均有较大的建树,不愧为中华民族民俗学界一位颇有见识的少数民族民俗学家     

突厥人的丧葬习俗述论

突厥自公元552年攻破柔然,阿史那土门正式称汗建国,一直到公元745年白眉可汗被国纥军队击杀而败亡.在前后历时将近二百年的岁月里,整个蒙古高原基本处于突厥人的控制之下,它本身丰富的文化生活内容,自然也就会给其控制下的各个民族以不同程度的影响.例如代之而起称雄漠北的回纥人,在很长一段时间内仍然沿用着突厥的语言、文字;后来攻灭回鹘汗国的黠戛斯人曾作为突厥的下属部落之一,也是操铁勒方言,属于突厥语族.另外,其它民族的文化、习俗也同样影响了突厥文化的发展与变化,从而使之更加丰富多彩.我们再从文化圈上看,突厥与回纥、黠戛斯都大致活动于同一范围之内,因而从六世纪中叶突厥兴起     

高昌供食文书中的突厥

吐鲁番阿斯塔那三○七、三二九、五一七号墓等三座曲氏高昌时期的墓葬中,出土了九件供食文书,其中六件内容与突厥有关.在供食客使中,出现了阿博珂寒(阿波可汗)、贪(氵旱)珂寒(贪汗可汗)、恕罗坷寒(处罗可汗)、南厢坷寒(可汗)、北厢珂寒(可汗)等突厥可汗派遣的使团.此外,还记载了“外生儿”(外甥)以及突厥可汗的铁师、金师等名称.这批文书的刊布,对于研究突厥史、高昌与突厥的关系,都不无裨益.本文试就文书中与突厥有关的问题略作考释.     

试论突厥丧葬风俗的流变

突厥丧葬风俗经历了一个相当复杂的变化过程,一方面其礼仪和习俗事项因层层积累而逐步丰富深厚,另一方面其葬法在树葬、火葬和土葬的转变中参差交错.本文着眼于突厥民族自发轫、兴起至亡国前后数百年的历史跨度,以变化的观点来探讨突厥丧葬在习俗积累、葬法演变两方面的问题和状况.     

后突厥汗国时期的“法度”更张辨

后突厥国时期的碑铭中往往有一些“违反突厥法度”、“丧失突厥法制”等方面的文字记述,一些学者以此为据,认为后突厥国时期的法度根本不同于以往,此时应是封建社会,突厥社会的奴隶法已被消除。本文结合相关的史料对此进行了较为详尽的的剖析与论述,认为后突厥国时期的“法度”并没有得到更张,突厥社会形态仍然属于军事奴隶主贵族专政的奴隶制社会。     

内蒙古包头市突厥鲁尼文查干敖包铭文考释——兼论后突厥汗国“黑沙南庭”之所在

在内蒙古包头市达尔罕茂明安联合旗发现的突厥鲁尼文查干敖包铭文,是内蒙古迄今发现的唯一的突厥鲁尼文文献史料.根据查干敖包铭文的发现地点及其印记,可推断该铭文应属于后突厥汗国可汗家族阿史那氏的旁系家族,纪年约在7世纪末至8世纪初,极有可能为迄今发现的最早的突厥鲁尼文文献史料.结合汉籍史料和笔者的田野调查,可推断后突厥汗国的“黑沙南庭”即为达茂旗一带的草原.而查干敖包铭文,则印证笔者有关“黑沙南庭”的这一推论不误.     

历史上维吾尔族与突厥及土耳其的关系

公元552年突厥汗国建立以后,就在蒙古草原上逐渐形成了以阿史那氏族为核心的突厥族。受突厥汗国统治的回纥部落与突厥政权为敌近二百年,回纥不是突厥族的成员。公元744年回纥在唐朝支持下灭亡了突厥汗国之后,回纥汗国境内的诸部落逐渐团聚形成了回纥族,此后突厥族就逐渐消散了。回纥与突厥是不同的两个古代民族。当代世界约三十个突厥语族民族与古代的突厥在文化、体质特征上已有本质的区别,它们不是一个民族。土耳其在历史上与维吾尔族没有联系,它们从来不是同一个民族。     

唐高祖时期唐突关系史事新解

本文在陈寅恪《论唐高祖称臣于突厥事》研究成果的基础上,探讨了联突厥的重要人物刘文静的真正主人、高祖称臣突厥与兴国寺兵的向背关系、唐突关系与刘武周兴灭、李世民国际地位等问题,认为初唐称臣的真正谋主就是李渊,他也是刘文静的真正主人;兴国寺兵是贯彻李渊外稳突厥、内招杨隋旧部的忠诚部队;刘武周覆灭的关健在于李渊成功地运用唐突外交策略,李世民与突厥关系是次要的;武德后期在唐突国际关系中,李世民的国际地位是他多年累积的军功资本、连兵突厥及招纳谋臣勇将苦心经营的综合结果.     

从国际视野看丝路青海道的演变

卡约文化时期,北方草原之路支线已深入青海境内。公元前6世纪至公元前3世纪中期,波斯帝国、亚历山大帝国、赛琉古王国对促进欧、亚、非三大洲世界性交往做出过杰出贡献。前3世纪中期至前2世纪末,中亚希腊化国家巴克特里亚(大夏)可能已通过青海道与中国贸易往来。公元前3世纪至公元3世纪初,罗马帝国、安息帝国与汉帝国的崛起促使了丝绸之路的畅通,但汉政府"隔绝羌胡"的政策使青海道失去了国际通道的功能。公元3世纪初至7世纪初,由于萨珊波斯的经营与中国各政权的重视,联系中国与中亚、西亚的交通大道"丝绸之路"仍畅通无阻。4至6世纪,在吐谷浑的经营下,青海道成为中国南北与域外联系的最重要的国际通道。7世纪至9世纪中期,阿拉伯帝国、吐蕃帝国与大唐帝国的崛起使横跨欧亚大陆的丝绸之路极度繁荣。这时在吐蕃的控制下,青海道在连接中国南北与西域、中亚乃至西亚的交通中仍然发挥着重要作用。9世纪末至13世纪初期,由于大国崩溃、小国林立,丝路东西两段俱走向衰落。不过北宋时期,青海凭借地缘优势,仍为沟通西域与中原的重要的国际通道。13世纪初期至15世纪初,在丝绸之路一度复兴的背景下,青海道地位下降,但仍为中西往来的通道。15世纪以后,由于丝路东西段沿线均战乱不已,青海道随整个丝绸之路的衰落而衰落。     

新疆回族驼运业的调查与研究

伴随着自元代起始的徙居,地处丝绸之路孔道的新疆回族便开始了远距离经商贸易活动。作为集货物运输与商业贸易为一体的商旅组织,回族驼运业随丝绸之路的兴衰而消长。到民国后,回族驼运业迅猛发展,在新疆驼运业中,规模最大,经营活动范围最广,资金最雄厚,社会影响最巨。本文依据田野调查资料及文献记载,对新疆回族驼运的组织与功能、通商路线与营运货物、驼运业兴起的原因及驼队的演变、新疆回族现在的经商运输情况等,作了系统论述。     

魏晋南北朝时期的河南道

河南道是丝绸之路的重要路段,在魏晋南北朝时期非常繁荣。此时期的河南道以五世纪中期为界分为初期发展和繁荣两个发展过程,并在当时中西、南北交通、经济文化交流中发挥了积极的作用。     

论入华粟特人流向的完整线索及最终归宿——基于粟特人“回鹘化”所作的考察

安史之乱后,中原汉人产生了排斥胡人的社会风潮,粟特人用改变姓氏、郡望等方法极力抹掉自己的胡人特征,出现了"汉化"现象.与此同时,由于丝绸之路为吐蕃所阻,众多入华粟特人转而以摩尼教徒的身份进入回鹘汗国,并籍草原丝绸之路开展东西方贸易,开始了"回鹘化"的进程.9世纪中叶及11世纪中叶回鹘汗国及甘州回鹘的"汉化"过程中,也裹杂了众多"回鹘化"了的粟特人.而对于最终融于维吾尔族的粟特人而言,"回鹘化"也是其重要阶段.     

韦皋与唐代南方丝绸之路的重开

Weigao was one of the famous Jie-dushi ( regional military commissioners ) of the Jiannan Xichuan ( located in today’s southern Si-chuan) in the Tang Dynasty. During the rule of Wei Gao, he successfully defeated the Tubo, and changed the Tang court’s submissiveness in the southwestern region and the fight between the Tang and Tubo along the southern line. He also restored the links between Yunnan and Xichuan including all the way to the Central Plains, and, as a result, the once closed Southern Silk Road was reopened. A further exploration and evaluation of Wei Gao’s actions and his influence on reopening the Southern Silk Road ought to be given. I. Wei Gao’s Alliance with the Nanzhao King-dom and Reopening the Southern Silk Road In 785 A. D. , Wei Gao arrived in Chengdu and was appointed Jiedushi of Jiannan Xichuan. The situation of Jiannan Xichuan at that time was very critical. After the Tianbao war, the Kingdom of Nanzhao, which had unified the area around Er-hai Lake with the support of the Tang in the past, turned against the Tang and publicly announced its alliance with the Tubo. The Nanzhao Kingdom, to-gether with the Tubo, struck the Tang in the south-western region. This shift not only put the Tang in a submissive position in the southwestern region, but also significantly influenced the relations be-tween the Tang and the Tubo. As the Jiedushi of Jiannan Xichuan, Wei Gao became a unique practitioner and actively promoted a joint strategy in Yunnan. After the Tang decided to make an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom, relevant actions were taken immediately. However because relations between the Nanzhao Kingdom and the Tang had been broken for many years, at the beginning, Wei Gao could only communicate through some of the tribal chiefs of the Dongman ( Eastern Barbarians) . Through several years of ef-fort and mutual contact, Wei Gao’s endeavors to make an alliance with the Nanzhao, at last, were effective. Wei Gao’s efforts to make an alliance with the Nanzhao certainly involved issues related to trans-portation between Xichuan and the area of Erhai Lake. During that period, the route between Xi-chuan and Nanzhao was not only under military threat from the Tubo, but it was also overseen by the tribes of the Dongman who supported the Tu-bo—this indicated that the line of communication was not in a normal situation. The Southern Silk Road was one of ancient China’s important land trade routes to overseas. In looking at relevant re-cords in the Shiji ( Records of the Historian ) , we can see that this route had been known by people in the Central Plains from at least the Qin and Han dynasties. It was called the“Shushen Dudao” dur-ing the Han dynasty, and the “Xi’er Tianzhu zhid-ao” in the Taizhong period of the Tang dynasty.“Xi’er” refers to Erhai Lake, which was called“Xi’er He” during that time; “Tianzhu”, i. e.“Shendu”, refers to present day India. Since the Qin and Han dynasties, there were two primary routes between Xichuan and the area of Lake Er-hai. One was the Shimendao, also called the Wuchidao or Rongzhoudao, which started from present Chengdu and went through present day Le-shan and Yibin. The other was the Qing Xidao, also called the Lingguandao, Songzhoudao or Qiongnan Yilu,which, started from present Cheng-du, and went through present day Ya’an, and Xichang. These two routes were also called the“North Route” and the“South Route” in the Yun-nan Zhi ( The History of Yunnan) compiled by Fan Cuo in the Tang Dynasty. These two were the main routes between Sichuan and Yunnan on the South-ern Silk Road in the Tang dynasty. In 794 A. D. , the Tang and the Nanzhao Kingdom swore an oath of alliance, and Wei Gao started his plans to reo-pen the routes. By making a comprehensive analy-sis of relevant historical records, we are certain that starting with a plan in the 8th century, and fol-lowing the realization of the alliance between the Tang and Nanzhao as part of the strategy for the Southwestern area, and, together with the success in the fight against the Tubo, the two main chan-nels between Sichuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Road were reopened as a result of the concern of Wei Gao at the beginning of the 9th century. II. The Basic Situation of the Route between Sichuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty and Its Historical Significance It was a long way from Xichuan to the area of Lake Erhai, and, moreover, the situation was also very complicated. Whenever the North Route or the South Route opened, it was not something that was completed immediately; it was a process. Al-though some sections of the road might be comple-ted initially, the opening of the entire route could not be completed within a short time. Through the records of Fan Cuo in his Yunnan Zhi, we can glean a general understanding of the basic situation regarding the reopening of the two main routes be-tween Sichuan and Yunnan along the Southern Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty. Seen from the records of Fan Cuo, there were courier stations along the South Route, so that travelers and their horses could have services and accommodation. It is very significant to note that in addition to the records of courier stations along the route managed by the Xichuan administration, the Yunnan Zhi also recorded that special translators were arranged for facilitating the contact and ex-change between the two sides, i. e. Xichuan and Nanzhao, after the route reached Ezhunling. This detail reflected Xichuan’s attention to the manage-ment of this route, but it also reflected the frequent contact between the people from the two sides of this route and the need for better communication. The road which started from Ezhunling was man-aged by the Nanzhao Kingdom. The situation of the North Route was quite different from the South Route. Based upon an analysis of the records found in the Yunnan Zhi, along the north route, there were not only high mountain, steep slopes, and winding roads, but the traveler also had to pass through many areas inhabited by the Wuman (Black Babarians). So, people were able to pass through the stations only after their words had been translated three or four times. Generally speaking, the conditions along the North Route were worse than those along the South Route. Therefore, al-though the reopening of the South Route was later than the North Route, people usually chose to pass through the South Route after it was reopened. It should be mentioned here that although Fan Cuo’s Yunnan Zhi was compiled during the early years of Xiantong Period in the Tang dynasty, the situation along the route and courier stations recorded in the book were probably not much different from those along the route during the time of Wei Gao. Al-though more than half a century of time had passed the road and courier stations along the South and North Routes might have only had some minor changes, and it was probably generally the same as in the past. Moreover it was unblocked for a long term due to the concern of the both sides. Another point that should be noted here is that although both the South and North Routes connecting Si-chuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Road in the Tang dynasty were managed by the administra-tions of Xichuan and Nanzhao separately, seen from the close relations and common demands of the two sides, the construction and management of these two important routes were combined through the negotiation of the two sides’ considerations and demands. As the major supporter for making the alliance with Nanzhao, Wei Gao should be the one who played an active role in this process. Because of the alliance between the Tang and the Nanzhao Kingdom the Tubo suffered a setback in the southwestern region, and they gradually re-treated to the north. Under this scenario, the channels of communication between Sichuan and Yunnan were unblocked, and communication be-tween the envoys from the Tang and Nanzhao be-came more frequent, the local trade developed, and the number of businessmen traversing Sichuan and Yunnan increased. Seen from the perspective of the development of Nanzhao, the frequent ex-changes between the artisans and traders from the two sides via the South and North Routes that ran between Sichuan and Yunnan promoted the eco-nomic and commercial development of Yunnan. In addition, there were many ethnic groups in the Nanzhao Kingdom. These included the Wuman, and Baiman ( white barbarians) . For several dec-ades,“more than a thousand” people from differ-ent ethnic groups went to Chengdu to study. This reflected that the reopening of the Southern Silk Road during the Tang dynasty played an important role in cultural transmission. On the other hand, training youth from the different ethnic groups liv-ing in the Nanzhao Kingdom also had a deep influ-ence on the cultural development of Yunnan. More important is that this action enhanced the commu-nication between the ethnic groups of Yunnan and the Central Plains. In addition, after reopening the road between Sichuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Route, the road continued through Nanzhao territory, crossed into the Myanmar-India route, and arrived in South and Southeast Asia. It could be said that Wei Gao’s reopening of the Southern Silk Road was not only helpful for communication between the people of Xichuan, the Central Plains and Yunnan, but it was also helpful for communi-cation between the Tang and the countries of South and Southeast Asia. It should be mentioned that Wei Gao’s reope-ning of the Southern Silk Road was conducted with-in the framework of an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom to attack the Tubo. Hence, speaking truthfully, reopening the road was not the main re-sponsibility of the Jiedushi of Xichuan, and was al-so not his main strategic goal. Under the serious situation faced by Jiannan Xichuan, Wei Gao’s main focus during that time was how to contact and make an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom so as to take military action against the Tubo. Even if he planned to reopen this road and took some action, it was conducted by targeting his military strategic action. However, reopening the Southern Silk Road could not be separated from the action of making an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom. Moreover, after reopening this road, it really pro-moted economic -cultural exchange and develop-ment along the road. Hence, we should give a full understanding and evaluation on Wei Gao’s histori-cal role in it.     

“南海一号”与宋代广西北部湾的对外交往

宋代中国南海海上贸易空前繁荣,留给后人的最直接航海物证就是"南海一号"古沉船。在汉代海上丝绸之路开辟与广西北部湾港口形成的基础上,随着宋代南海海上丝绸之路航线的改变,广西北部湾主要以安南等东南亚小国为交往对象,中心港口移至钦州,钦州博易场等地成为主要的贸易场所。"南海一号"发掘地所在的阳江外海面是商船从广州、福建港口经由北部湾到南海各国的经过地,也是广州与钦州间来往商船的经过地。广西北部湾港口特别是钦州港的对外交往是宋朝海外交往繁荣发展的一个缩影。     

柯尔克孜跨国民族地缘交通历史与现状

柯尔克孜族成为跨国民族 ,起因为近代沙俄向外扩张以及中俄一系列不平等条约的签定。跨国后的柯尔克孜族居住于西部天山两侧 ,1170公里长的边界线将同一民族分为两半。柯尔克孜族所在地区自古以来便处于丝绸之路必经之地 ,一些著名的山口就位于其中。跨国后 ,位居边界线两侧同源民族之间的关系 ,随着所在国政治、外交关系的变迁而疏密 ,同时 ,还和两个国家的政策以及国力的强弱等因素有关     

亦失哈十下奴儿干

亦失哈是明王朝前期著名的宦官.从成祖永乐年间到宣宗宣德九年,他曾10次奉命带领船队装载大批货物,开通松花江至黑龙江长达数千里的"丝绸之路",巡抚东北北部边疆奴儿干地区,传播了中华文明,促进了东北边疆与中原内地经济与文化的交往,维护了国家的统一.     

吐蕃与大食早期经济往来

从远古时代起,青藏高原地区就与华北、葱岭以西有着广泛的经济、文化往来,吐蕃王朝的建立为促进青藏高原的统一,发展与青藏高原外部的联系创造了条件。吐蕃不仅积极参与东西方丝路贸易,而且其在西域、中亚的军事活动本身就兼具商业目的。商业贸易促进了吐蕃军事、经济、文化的发展,增强了吐蕃的综合实力,同时也为吐蕃社会的发展指明了方向。