我国农村社会养老保险存在的问题及对策

我国农村社会养老保险目前正在探求新的制度,研究当前中国农村社会养老保险建设中存在的问题,寻求有针对性的对策,对于进一步完善我国农村养老保险制度具有重要意义。基于此,论文针对我国农村社会养老保险目前存在的问题,提出完善农村社会养老保险的若干对策与思考。     

Combining Welfare-to-Work Measures with Tax credits: A New Hybrid Approach to Social Security in the United Kingdom

The changes described in this article reflect a shift in social security away from social insurance and towards a mixture of social assistance, occupational or private insurance and tax credits. It suggests that what is new and distinctive about UK social security policy is the way in which a new strategy has been forged by linking the New Deal, which provides job opportunities for people who are not in employment but can often only offer them low-paid jobs, with tax credit schemes, which provide in-work benefits and are designed to ensure that, if necessary, people accept poorly paid employment.     

近十年我国社会保障改革的历史进程与经验总结

近十年来,我国面临的国际国内形势出现了新的变化,社会保障改革在此背景下也进行了新的道路选择并取得一系列成就。2011年开展城镇居民社会养老保险试点工作,这与2009年建立的新农保制度初步构成了我国养老保障制度的基本框架,标志着我国覆盖城乡居民社会保障体系的主要制度都建立起来,是我国社会保障改革和全面建设小康社会的重大进步。总结近十年来我国社会保障改革的基本经验,有益于我们更明确的认识改革的历史与现状,为继续推进社会保障改革、发展社会保障事业奠定重要基础。     

Social Insurance and the Contributory Principle: A Paradox in Contemporary British Social Policy

At the outset of the twenty-first century, the situation of British National Insurance is one of paradox. Due to socioeconomic changes and successive government policies over the past three decades, the contributory principle, which was a cornerstone of social security reconstruction after World War II, has been in remarkable decline. At the same time contributions to the National Insurance Fund increased significantly and continues to represent a substantial form of total social security revenue. The contributory principle has a broad public appeal, but National Insurance does not figure prominently in public debates and the system is poorly understood. Recent policies have added to the ambiguity as to how far the contributory principle confers social rights, and have further eroded its rationale. The article states that this situation is not matched by developments in other European countries. Despite substantial reforms and heated debates marked by controversy, the prospect for social insurance and the contributory principle appears considerably better than in the UK. One major explanation is, the article argues, the distinctive notion of social insurance in Britain and particularly the lack of "wage-replacement" transfers. Elsewhere in Europe, earnings-related transfers sustain a very different incentive structure, institutional involvement and wider public participation in matters of social insurance.     

The Swiss social insurance system: Social security and grass‐roots democracy

The foundations of Switzerland's social insurance system can be traced to 1890 when a public referendum voted the inclusion of an article into the Federal Constitution that gave the executive the task of creating a sickness and accident insurance scheme. Currently, as in other European countries, the Swiss social insurance system is facing challenges as a result of rising health costs and demographic shifts, which are placing a growing burden on both public finances and private households. To reach policy decisions to address these challenges, the Swiss system is distinguishable from those of its European neighbours because of a continuing tradition of political decision‐making based on grass‐roots democracy: through referenda, the Swiss people remain directly responsible for the development of the national social insurance system. Importantly, not only might this unique feature of Swiss democracy lead the Swiss people more readily to accept and identify with their social insurance system but it may offer a sound democratic base upon which to build a consensual approach to address the policy challenges that lie ahead.     

Development of Social Health Insurance in Mongolia: Successes, Challenges and Lessons

This paper examines the process of developing social health insurance in Mongolia, and its successes, challenges and lessons. The government of Mongolia introduced social health insurance in 1994, which is compulsory for all public and private sector employees and low-income and vulnerable population groups. The scheme also provided voluntary insurance for unemployed people of working age. About 95 per cent of the population was covered by health insurance within the first two years thanks to a high level of government subsidy for vulnerable population groups. The insurance benefit initially covered nearly all inpatient services except the treatment of some specified chronic and infectious diseases, which were directly funded by the government. The scheme not only had many successes but also faced challenges in maintaining universal coverage. The new financing arrangement has provided little financial incentive for healthcare providers to contain health expenditure, contributing to rapid health cost inflation. In addition to reforming the payment system for providers, there has been an increasing need to expand benefits into ambulatory care. The development of compulsory health insurance in Mongolia shows that a prepaid health insurance mechanism based on risk sharing and fund pooling is feasible in low-income countries given political commitment and government financial support for vulnerable population groups.     

Social Inequality under a New Social Contract: Long-term Care in Japan

The 1990s saw the beginning of new developments in the social policy agenda of Japan. A combination of further cuts in social expenditure and increases in financial resources through various means has become inevitable in response to the increasing cost burden of an ageing society, the prolonged recession and changes in the Japanese family. In this context, “kaigo hoken” (long‐term care insurance) was introduced in 2000 to increase revenue and fill the gap vacated by the family. The scheme introduced a different concept to the public: that long‐term care was no longer “expected’’ from the family or “allocated” by the state, but has become part of a “social contract” based upon a system of mandatory contributions, uniform entitlements and consumer choice. This paper first explores the role of the new scheme in creating social inequalities among individuals (and families). A panel survey is used to highlight different patterns of care provision and the varying degree of financial pressure among different income groups. Second, based on qualitative research, the paper examines how the new scheme has transformed the relationship between older people and their families who have played a central role in this arena. The scheme has consequently divided “traditional” families and their liberal counterparts, as a result of care work being “commodified”. It is apparent that this scheme has not only responded to fill the existing care gap but may also help accelerate the changes that have been taking place for the last two decades.     

Transformation: Canadian Social Policy Since 1985

This paper sets out to document and explain the major structural changes which have taken place in Canada's social security system since the mid-1980s. Most major programs have been cut back one way or another, in response to a combination of pressures. Foremost amongst these has been the commitment to reduce federal and provincial government deficits. In addition there have been the consequences of high unemployment and increasing job insecurity, demographic and social changes, and "tax fatigue" on the part of the public. The paper documents major recent changes of social policy both in general—with regard to the changed approach evident at federal level and its effect on social transfers to the provinces—and in respect of key programs, including unemployment/employment insurance, old age pensions/the Canada Pension Plan, and child benefits. The paper next identifies "currents and undercurrents" common to all of the developments commented on: the decline of universality, the practice of "social policy-making by stealth", the evidence of the contemporary Canadian public's "collective ambivalence and loss of memory" in respect of the major, historic social programs. It concludes by urging the case for social reinvestment in genuinely sustainable social policy, in the currently more favourable fiscal climate.     

论北京市农村社会养老保险制度改革

当前,以科学发展观为指导,建立社会主义和谐社会已经成为中国改革和发展的主要目标,农村养老保险制度的改革也已经逐渐展开,北京市农村社会养老保险制度改革正在向纵深发展。本研究是在对农村社会养老保险制度改革进行理论分析的基础上,通过对全国有关省市农村社会养老保险的具体方法进行剖析,揭示了当前农村社会养老保险的概况、特点,并对北京市的农村社会养老保险情况进行了具体分析,在此基础上,提出了改革北京市农村社会养老保险制度的对策。     

Social Protection in Greece: A Brief Glimpse of a Welfare State

This paper examines the delayed development of the welfare state in Greece and its restructuring since the early 1990s. The emphasis is on factors, such as the rapid shift from pre-Fordist to post-Fordist socio-economic structures, the weak development of contractual relationships and a solidaristic culture, and the extensive reproduction of a statist/clientelist form of social organization strongly linked to a high degree of social fragmentation and a particularistic appropriation of welfare benefits and services, which have hindered the full maturation of social citizenship in Greek society up to now. An expensive trend of social protection in conjunction with some major law reforms in the early 1980s contributed to the development of a “weak form” of universalism. These trends were soon overturned, however, well before Greek society could develop a welfare state, under the pressure of a serious fiscal crisis, low economic growth, increasing international competition, significant demographic changes and a fragile social consensus. Thus, the national health care system has hardly succeeded in establishing universal coverage, the social insurance system has remained highly fragmented and dualist, while policy measures for tackling increasing unemployment, hardship and poverty have been rudimentary. These have caused serious deadlocks and a deep institutional crisis. For this crisis to be overcome, it is essential that a new social balance promoting social solidarity is achieved in the country, while a reinvigorated Social Europe can help enormously in this direction.     

Social insurance schemes in the Gulf countries

Being economically well established, the member countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council have unique social insurance schemes. Based on the defined benefit principle, they have succeeded in creating large reserves, which are managed and invested independently by the social insurance institutions. However, the schemes are facing a continuous escalation in their costs, due to their generosity rather than the population ageing observed in industrialized countries. This trend may well support the argument that the schemes in the region can cope with conventional reforms like increasing contribution rates, raising retirement age and restricting early retirement, rather than switching to a defined contribution system.     

Germany's Social Long-term Care Insurance: Design, Implementation and Evaluation

Across all industrialized countries, issues surrounding population ageing have captured the attention of policymakers. Among its manifold ramifications, disability-related poverty and the projected growth in public funding of long-term care demand close attention. Comparative studies have revealed distinct policy approaches to long-term care across different countries, but a shared interest in market-oriented policy design and cost containment. In Germany, legislation on mandatory and universal dependency care insurance came into force recently. The 1994 Dependency Insurance Act responded to limited market insurance against the financial risk of long-term care, deficiencies in servicing long-term care dependants and the fiscal crisis of German communities, which had to provide social assistance to a growing number of destitute care clients. The new social long-term care insurance scheme adopts basic features of existing German social insurance schemes even as it challenges the country's social insurance legacy in terms of cost containment strategies and consumer-directed provision. After three years of operation, the new programme is technically in place and financially healthy. However, critics point to its tight screening procedures, persistent shortages in the supply of formal care, and fraud. Equity issues, quality of care and consumer direction have also drawn critical attention. A variety of scenarios for programme improvement are conceivable. Coverage could be extended and payments offered to family caregivers. A comprehensive "cash and counselling" concept should be developed. Finally, programme efficiency depends on public accountability and quality auditing. Choice should be informed by ongoing research into long-term care and the broader impacts of long-term care policy.     

日本农村社会养老保险制度的运行模式及其启示

二战后：随着社会经济的恢复和发展，日本开始重视农业劳动者的养老保险需求，并逐步建立了农村社会养老保险制度，形成了分层次、多类别的自保公助型农村养老保障模式，为日本农村社会经济发展与稳定构筑了一道“安全网”。日本农村社会养老保险的运行模式对于构建我国农村社会养老保险制度具有一定的参考价值，必须结合我国国情，建立适合不同农民需求、充分发挥社区互助的有中国特色的农村社会养老保险制度。     

From Social Insurance to Social Assistance

In attempting to establish a social security system that would function to smooth the transition from a planned to market economy, the government of China has, for most of the time in the past decades, focused its efforts on setting up social insurance programs in the urban areas. Along with the emergence of urban poverty since the mid 1990s, the emphasis of the government has shifted to means-tested social assistance programs as the major means to combat poverty and maintain social stability. However, with the absence of more equitable social and economic policies that can protect people against the many risks associated with a market economy, the role of social assistance is very limited.     

The state of the German social insurance state: Reform and resilience

At the core of the German system of welfare provision stand social insurance schemes whose central role contributes to Germany being labelled a social insurance state. In recent decades, Germany has been experiencing major social policy reforms that are often evaluated as paradigm changes. These changes have been reflected in analyses that sometimes even questioned common classifications of the German welfare state. The article sheds light on recent developments that have affected the German system of social insurance. It focuses on four aspects of social insurance: benefits, financing, governance, and coverage. Although confirming many earlier analyses of reforms in detail and sharing assessments of changes such as retrenchment and marketization, the article nevertheless stresses that social insurance remains structurally intact and that the work–welfare nexus underlying welfare provision has been reinterpreted but not surrendered.     

The disembedded digital economy: Social protection for new economy employment in China

This research focuses upon employment in the new economy, exploring labour protection and social protection in the digital age in China. Through an empirical survey conducted in three Chinese cities, social insurance and the labour rights of employees in the digital economic sector, such as gig employment, e-commerce, and various other forms of online employment, have been examined in-depth. This study reveals new regulatory loopholes in the digital labour market, which have substantially eroded the basis of social policy arrangements in China, “softening” participation in social insurance branches and compliance with labour regulations remarkably. Drawing upon the theoretical concepts of Polanyi on embeddedness and disembeddedness, we argue that the digital employment sector in China has been increasingly disembedded from social institutions and social control. The new configuration in the digital field of social policy requires novel conceptual models and institutional settings to cope with increasing social risks in virtual spaces.     

构建适应市场经济的中国社会保障制度

社会保障制度作为市场经济运行的"安全阀"和"减震器",担负着保证社会成员的基本生活水平、保持社会稳定、协调公平与效率的使命。鉴于目前城乡社会保障的巨大反差、保障范围覆盖不全、保障基金利用效率低下的实际,构建适应市场经济的中国社会保障制度,应建立和发展多元化、多层次的社会保障体系;拓宽社会保障覆盖面,采用新的社会保障筹资比例和筹资方式;大力推进社会保障的法制建设,调节财富,以建立中国的社会保障安全网;解决好城市化进程中新型城镇人口和农村的社会保障问题。     

Social security reforms in China: issues and prospects

The phenomenal success of China's market-oriented economic reforms since the 1980s has rendered the traditional employment-based social security system increasingly inadequate and inefficient. For decades, the Chinese government has been trying to develop a more pluralistic, effective and affordable social security system which will be compatible with both a thriving market economy and a flagging socialist political structure. While the emerging system is still struggling with a variety of operational problems, the entry of China into the WTO is looming as a formidable challenge to this social security system. This presentation outlines the recent reforms of the social security system undertaken by the Chinese government, and assesses the effectiveness of the results in meeting the challenge. Here, social security reforms focus on the retirement and unemployment insurance schemes and the social assistance program.     

Institutional Developments in the Russian System of Social Security: Organizational and Interorganizational Aspects

In the course of the present transition in Russian society, a new system of social security has been developed. The previous Soviet system has been replaced by a system of four more or less independent social funds, covering the main branches of social security. These funds are supposed to be run according to insurance principles and to be financed by contributions, mainly from employers. Given the difficult economic and social situation of the country, there have been increasing demands for effectiveness in the management of the different funds and also in the management of the whole social security system. The results of this study show that the social funds have developed different organizational structures with different degrees of centralization and decentralization. Only one of the funds seems to be relatively well-functioning and effective, while the others have experienced more or less serious problems in fulfilling their main tasks and functions. The most serious problems, however, seem to stem from the structure of the social security system as a whole, which is perceived as fragmented and badly coordinated. In order to improve the coordination of the system, there have been proposals to merge two or more funds into a unified social security organization. This strategy is open to question, however, since it would increase the bureaucracy of the system. There are other ways in which the structure of the social security system might be advanced. Such developments should be based on an analysis of the system from the perspective of the individual client or patient.