Reactions of leaders to 360-degree feedback from subordinates and peers

The current study examined factors related to leaders' reactions to 360-degree feedback. The total sample consisted of 220 supervising managers from a large public utility. We collected data in three waves which involved pretest, performance rating, and posttest surveys (49 leaders had valid data from all three waves of measurement). We hypothesized that overall ratings, organizational support, and perceived rater ability would be positively related to four reaction criteria (acceptance and perceived usefulness of subordinate feedback and peer feedback). Results showed that overall ratings were related to acceptance of peer and subordinate feedback, but were less consistently related to perceptions of feedback usefulness. For perceived usefulness of subordinate feedback, organizational support accounted for unique variance beyond overall ratings, and perceived rater ability was marginally significant. None of the predictions for perceived usefulness of peer feedback were significant. The authors discuss limitations, implications, and suggestions for future research.     

Beneath the mask:: Examining the relationship of self-presentation attributes and impression management to charismatic leadership

We tested several hypotheses derived from Gardner and Avolio's [Acad. Manage. Rev. 23 (1998) 32.] self-presentational theory of charismatic leadership. We collected multisource field data in an information technology (IT) consulting firm and examined linkages among managers' self-system attributes (i.e., desired charismatic identity, self-monitoring), pro-social and self-serving impression management of managers, charismatic leadership of managers, and two measures of performance. Eighty-three managers provided self-reports of self-system attributes. Six months later, 249 subordinates rated the focal managers' impression management and charismatic leadership styles. Superiors of the focal managers provided performance ratings 7 months after collecting the subordinate ratings. Results indicated that complexity of desired charismatic identity was positively related to self-monitoring. Self-monitoring was negatively related to ratings of pro-social impression management and positively related to ratings of self-serving impression management. Pro-social impression management related positively to charismatic leadership, which predicted managerial and unit performance.     

Self-concept based aspects of the charismatic leader: More than meets the eye

This research examines the relationships among leader self-concept based dispositional attributes (i.e., self-consciousness, self-monitoring, and purpose-in-life) with ratings of charismatic leadership. Questionnaires were used to collect data from different sources: 64 managers rated themselves on self-concept based dispositional attributes, while 194 subordinates assessed their manager's leadership style. Results indicated that leader private self-consciousness, self-monitoring, and purpose-in-life were positively related to charismatic leadership. Leader purpose-in-life was negatively related to both private and public self-consciousness. Private self-consciousness was positively related to self-monitoring. Results are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical implications.     

Personality and Leadership Developmental Levels as predictors of leader performance

This study is an empirical investigation of constructive-developmental theory as a theoretical framework for understanding leadership and as a predictor of 360-degree leader performance ratings. Constructive-developmental stage (conceptualized as Leadership Developmental Level) was found to predict performance ratings from all rater sources (superiors, peers, and subordinates). Furthermore, the predictive ability of Leadership Developmental Level is compared to that of Big Five personality dimensions in a model of 360-degree leader performance ratings. Leadership Developmental Level was found to account for a unique component of the variance in leader performance as rated by peers and subordinates, even above and beyond that which can be accounted for by personality.     

Which leadership roles matter to whom? an examination of rater effects on perceptions of effectiveness

Using a 360-degree feedback approach, we examined the extent to which raters vary in the leadership roles they associate with effectiveness, as well as the extent to which self-ratings reflect those of other raters. Using data from 252 managers and their subordinates, peers, and superiors from the public utility industry, we found that, depending on the rater-ratee relationship, different leadership roles are associated with effectiveness. The managers themselves resembled their superiors the most in terms of the leadership roles they associated with effectiveness. These results lend support for the importance of 360-degree feedback for both practitioners and researchers. Organizational researchers, then, should not only examine levels of rater agreement, but also try to better understand what different raters consider critical leadership roles. This article is a step in that direction.     

Integrity's place among the character strengths of middle-level managers and top-level executives

One purpose of this study was to extend integrity research in organizations into the ranks of middle management. We therefore examined whether middle-level managers' behavioral manifestations of integrity related to ratings of their performance. Results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that direct report ratings of a middle-level manager's integrity were positively related to boss ratings of that manager's performance. A second purpose of this study was to understand differences in integrity's relative importance to performance among other character strengths, and as a function of context (e.g., managerial level). We extend research in this area by showing, through relative weight analysis, that integrity was relatively less important to middle-level managers' current performance compared to other character strengths (e.g., social intelligence). In contrast, integrity was relatively more important for the performance of top-level executives — roles middle-level managers may hold in the future. Implications of these results for future research and practice as well as the current study's limitations are discussed.     

The Relationship between Styles of Creativity and Managerial Skills Assessment

This study examined the relationships between creativity style, as measured by the Kirton Adaption Innovation Inventory (KAI) and the self and other ratings on a 360- degree feedback instrument, the Management Skills Profile (MSP) among US managers. Results indicated that self-reports of the use of managerial skills were related to the individual manager's creativity style, but the ratings by others were not. Adaptive managers, as defined by the KAI, were more likely to underrate themselves, while self-ratings of innovative managers tended to concur with the ratings of others. Implications for helping managers understand discrepancies in self and others' ratings as a function of creativity style in a developmental context and directions for future research are discussed.     

效忠主管与员工工作绩效的关系:反馈寻求行为和权力距离的影响

效忠主管一直是华人组织经久不衰的议题,尽管已有文献认为员工效忠主管有助于提升其工作绩效,然而关于效忠主管通过怎样的具体机制来影响员工工作绩效却并未得到系统的阐释。本文以14家企业的360名员工为样本,探讨了效忠主管对工作绩效的影响机制,尤其是研究员工反馈寻求行为在其中的中介作用及员工权力距离的调节作用。分析结果表明,效忠主管对员工工作绩效、反馈寻求行为都有显著的正向影响;反馈寻求行为在效忠主管与工作绩效关系中起完全中介作用。另外,员工的权力距离负向调节了效忠主管与反馈寻求行为的正相关关系,即员工的权力距离越低,两者的正向相关关系越强。     

Relational commitments in employee–supervisor dyads and employee job performance

We investigated employee commitment to the supervisor and supervisor commitment to the employee within employee–supervisor dyads. We examined the relationships among four commitment mindsets (affective, normative, continuance-sacrifices, and continuance-alternatives) across members of the dyads and their relationships to employee job performance. Using a sample of 300 employee–supervisor dyads from health care organizations, HLM analyses revealed that supervisor positive commitments (i.e., affective, normative, continuance-sacrifices) generally related significantly to employee positive commitments. Moreover, supervisor commitment moderated the relationship of employee affective commitment to job performance, such that when supervisor affective, normative, and continuance-sacrifices commitments were high, the relationship between employee affective commitment and performance was weaker. We discuss the implications of these findings for the understanding of employee–supervisor relationships.     

The role of personal values in the charismatic leadership of corporate managers: A model and preliminary field study

This study used multi-source field data collected in five organizations to examine linkages among managers' personal value system (i.e., intensity of openness to change, traditional, collectivistic work, self-transcendent, and self-enhancement values), charismatic leadership of managers, and three outcome measures. Two-hundred and eighteen managers provided self-reports of their personal values and ratings of their followers' extra effort and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Nine-hundred and forty-five subordinates rated the focal managers' charismatic leadership. Superiors of the focal managers provided ratings of managerial performance 2 months after collecting the managers' and subordinates' ratings. Results indicated that traditional, collectivistic work, self-transcendent, and self-enhancement values related positively to charismatic leadership, which predicted managerial performance and followers' extra effort and OCB. Managerial performance moderated the relationships between leaders' values, charismatic leadership, and followers' outcomes.     

Self–other rating agreement in leadership: A review

This paper reviews the theoretical and empirical literature on self–other rating agreement (SOA) related to leadership in the workplace, focusing primarily on research published between 1997 (the year of Atwater &; Yammarino's seminal paper on SOA) and the present. Much of the current interest in SOA derives from its purported relationships with self-awareness and leader effectiveness. The literature, however, has used a variety of metrics to assess SOA, resulting in discrepancies between findings across studies. As multi-rater (360-degree; multisource) feedback instruments continue to be widely used as a measure of leadership in organizations, it is important that we more clearly understand the relationships between SOA and its predictors and outcomes. To this end, in this article, we review (a) models of agreement, (b) factors affecting self-ratings and the congruence between self–others' ratings, (c) factors affecting others' ratings, (d) correlates of agreement, and (e) measurement issues and data analytic techniques. We conclude with discussions of practitioner issues and directions for future research.     

Leader behaviors and career derailment potential: A multi-analytic method examination of rating source and self–other agreement

Based on extensive research that views leadership as a multi-faceted phenomenon, we examined how the relationships between task-oriented and relationship-oriented leader behaviors and career derailment potential vary by observer perspective. We present findings using three different analytical techniques: random coefficient modeling (RCM), relative weight analysis (RWA), and polynomial regression (PR). RCM findings suggest that self-, direct report, peer, and supervisor ratings of leader behaviors differ and are associated with career derailment potential. RWA results indicate that self-ratings matter the least, whereas peer ratings of leader behaviors typically matter the most in predicting career derailment potential. PR analyses indicate that career derailment potential is lowest when self-ratings are lower than other ratings of leader behaviors and/or when self–other ratings converge on higher, rather than lower, ratings of leader behaviors. Implications for leadership and self–other agreement research and professional practice are discussed.     

Analysis of human capital development in Puerto Rico: summary and conclusions

This study explored whether perceptions of organizational business ethics differ by hierarchical levels. The study sample included more than 40,000 executives, mid-level managers and non-managerial employees from business organizations in six countries: Brazil, China, Germany, India, the UK and the US. We found that executives provided the most positive assessment of ethical business culture within their respective organizations. Employees’ assessments were less positive, and mid-level managers’ assessments fell in the middle. Organizational size and respondents’ age were not related to differences in responses. Statistically significant differences among hierarchical levels were found in Brazil, the US, Germany, the UK and China. Differences were not significant in India. Executives with longer tenure at the same organization tended to provide higher ratings of organizations’ ethical cultures, while managers’ and employees’ ratings tended to decrease with time.     

Understanding high school student leaders: II. Peer nominations of leaders and their correlates

The article represents a trait theory approach to the prediction of peer nominations of adolescent leaders in high school. It reports confirmation of earlier results [Leadership Q. 10 (1999) 609.] using teacher ratings of these same adolescents. Results generally confirmed the earlier results, finding similar significant predictors of peer leader nominations to those of the teacher ratings (over a 2-year time lag) in personality, interests, and academic ability domains. More specifically, (1) peer nominations of leaders and teacher ratings of leadership behavior are significantly correlated, (2) the predictors of peer nominations of leaders overlap with the predictors of teacher ratings, (3) peer nominations of leaders are only modestly related to peer nominations of friendship and popularity, (4) the personal attributes that are significant correlates of popularity and friendship are somewhat different from the correlates of leadership, and (5) the most consistent predictors unique to leadership (across time lags, ratings source, and facets of leadership) are the Judging–Perceiving (JP) dimension of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and grade point average (GPA). A framework for understanding the present results in the context of the history of the trait prediction of leadership is presented with implications for further studies based on a trait theory perspective.     

“Seeing” is retrieving: Recovering emotional content in leadership ratings through visualization

Our purpose was to develop a new method of questionnaire administration that better captures the role of affect and embodied cognitions in leadership ratings. Study 1 participants visualized their current work supervisor or a neutral stimulus and provided ratings of their work supervisor. Study 2 participants viewed a leadership event and made ratings of leadership and affect. Participants later made identical ratings after visualization. In both quasi-experiments, participants' affect was more strongly related to their leadership ratings following leader visualization. Study 2 showed that participants' leadership and affect ratings were more consistent with their initial ratings, and it showed better episodic memory recall following leader visualization.     

Identifying success factors for female entrepreneurs using the AMO framework: Empirical evidence from Japan

This study applies deep insights from the ability, motivation, and opportunity (AMO) framework as an overarching theoretical perspective to identify critical success factors for female entrepreneurs. In doing so, it investigates how entrepreneurial persistence (i.e., motivation or “M”), together with prior venture experience (i.e., ability or “A”) and competitive intensity (i.e., opportunity or “O”) influence the success of women's entrepreneurial activities. Using data from 308 Japanese female entrepreneurs, we show a positive association between entrepreneurial persistence and female entrepreneurs' venture growth, which becomes stronger when prior venture experience and competitive intensity are considered. Most importantly, the three-way interaction between these factors maximizes the business performance of female entrepreneurs. Thus, venture growth is the highest in the presence of high levels of entrepreneurial persistence, prior venture experience, and competitive intensity. Our findings suggest that policy makers should improve the competitiveness of women-led ventures and create supportive business environments for female entrepreneurs.     

Putting non-work ties to work: The case of guanxi in supervisor–subordinate relationships

Traditional Western-based theories of supervisor–subordinate relationships tend to focus on social exchanges in the work domain while omitting potential exchanges that occur in the private domain. However, there are many contexts, particularly in transitional economies lacking strong bureaucratic work structures (e.g., China, Brazil), where personal exchanges outside of the work domain serve as a critical, binding fabric in the workplace. One such example is the indigenous Chinese concept of guanxi, which captures the personal ties between supervisors and subordinates and operates as a protective mechanism for subordinates and a loyalty-inducing agent for supervisors. Using 281 supervisor–subordinate dyads from China, we explored an important antecedent and consequences of guanxi while controlling for the parallel process of the traditionally work-focused construct leader-member exchange (LMX). Results suggest that although both guanxi and LMX mediate the effects of proactive personality on affiliative OCB (i.e., interpersonal facilitation), guanxi is more strongly related to challenging OCB (i.e., taking charge) and LMX is more strongly related to task performance.     

A Theory of Production Competence Revisited*

A recent article [3] proposed a definable relationship between production competence and business performance and presented empirical evidence to support the relationship. The purpose of this note is four-fold. First, it corrects the authors' numerical measure of production competence. The correction changes the nature of the relationship between competence and performance. Second, this note suggests an improved numerical measure of business performance (the dependent variable in the study). The authors of [3] defined performance in a manner which inadvertently captures elements used to measure production competence (the independent variable). The result is a deceptively close fit of the authors' model with the data. The third purpose of the note is to introduce a more appropriate theoretical framework for the production competence construct. It is shown that production competence is closely related to the formulation and implementation of manufacturing strategy and can best be understood within that context. Last, an alternative conceptual model of the relationship between business strategy, production competence, and business performance is presented. The new model includes a construct which measures the “fit” of a firm's business strategy to its external, competitive environment.     

How displaying empathic concern may differentially predict career derailment potential for women and men leaders in Australia

Past research notes the importance of emotions in the workplace. Much less is known about the role that empathic concern, an affect-laden construct, plays in predicting a leader's career advancement using measures of one's upward mobility, such as career derailment potential. Data provided by practicing managers in Australia show that leaders who displayed behaviors that convey empathic concern receive lower ratings of career derailment potential. We also found that gender was a statistically significant moderator of these relationships. With boss rating of derailment potential as the outcome, the negative relationship between empathic concern and derailment potential was statistically significant for women only. With peer ratings of derailment potential as the outcome, the negative relationship between empathic concern and derailment potential was stronger for women than men. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

360度评估体系中权重调整方法研究

在360度评估体系中,评估者主要包括上级、下级、同级和员工本人。评估成员中往往有高估自己而低估他人的倾向,有时也会出现策略性的评估,这会导致评价结果出现偏差。另外在企业的实际应用中,各类评估者的权重往往是固定的,因此对于出现的各类偏差很难调整。本文通过分析成员的评分结果,确定成员自评与他评的一致性类型,给出了自评与他评的权重确定方法,在此基础上设计了成员的得分函数。本文的权重调整方法实际上是一种机制设计,主要是约束各类评估者策略性的评估或者降低由于心理因素带来的各类偏差。最后,将该方法应用于企业员工贡献值的排序问题,并通过与传统方法的比较,说明了此方法的有效性与合理性。