Relations between close friendships and adolescent aggression: Structural and behavioral friendship features

Friendships have the potential to perpetuate or mitigate youth's aggressive behavior. We investigated concurrent and longitudinal effects of friendships on aggression by examining both structural (size and interconnectedness of the local friendship network) and behavioral (friends' aggression) friendship features. Participants were 868 sixth to eighth grade middle‐school students (M = 12.10 years; 49.9% girls; 44% Latina/o) who completed questionnaires at two time points. Participants nominated their friends; reciprocal friendship nominations were used to calculate structural friendship group features (size and interconnectedness). Peer nominations were also used to measure youth's and their friends' aggression. Having more reciprocal friends was associated with more aggression concurrently (particularly for youth whose friends were highly aggressive), and having an interconnected friendship group was associated with decreased aggression over time. Given that findings were different for group size and interconnectedness, we discuss the unique importance of each of these structural friendship features. Practical implications regarding the potential to decrease aggressive behavior based on specific friendship features are also discussed.     

Gender-Differentiated Experience in the Peer Culture: Links to Intimacy in Preadolescence

This study tested claims that gender differences in intimacy are attributable to gender-differentiated experiences in the peer culture (i.e., male and female 'worlds'). Participants were 188 Canadian preadolescents (10–12 years, 106 girls) who completed questionnaires regarding the intimacy of their same-sex best friendship, intimate support received from peers, and two dimensions of culture–gender composition of the friendship network and participation in communal (i.e., intimacy-promoting) and agentic (intimacy-repressing) activities. Consistent with the 'two worlds' explanation (a) communal activity participation related positively and team sports negatively to same-sex friendship intimacy, but the latter only for boys, and (b) having other-sex friends predicted same-sex friendship intimacy for boys but not girls. The two worlds explanation, though supported, requires revision to accommodate findings that male and female preadolescents' activity participation overlapped considerably, intimate friendships were not limited to intimate contexts, agentic activities potentiated both agentic and communal goals, and peer cultural variables predicted intimacy better for boys than girls.     

Early Adolescent School Adjustment: Associations with Friendship and Peer Victimization

This study investigates shared and unique associations of early adolescent friendship and peer victimization with self reports of school liking and teacher reports of academic competence. Participants were 398 sixth and seventh grade students and their teachers and peers. Measures of friendship included self reports of friendship support and mutual friendship nominations, and measures of peer victimization also included self and peer reports. Regression analyses revealed that friendship support and mutual friendships were uniquely associated with higher school liking and academic competence, and peer‐reported victimization was uniquely associated with lower academic competence. Moderation analyses revealed that self‐reported victimization was associated with lower school liking among students who reported higher friendship support but not among students who reported lower friendship support. The developmental context of findings and potential mechanisms are discussed.     

Authenticity in friendships and well‐being in adolescence

Only a handful of studies have focused on understanding how authenticity in close relationships may be related to individuals’ well‐being. In this study we examined whether authenticity in a friendship was related to greater adjustment during adolescence. Participants were 318 sixth‐ and ninth‐grade students (155 boys; M _age = 13.46, SD _age = 1.51). Our results show that adolescents who feel more authentic have more positive self‐views, are less lonely at school, and more satisfied with their relationship. Importantly, authenticity–adjustment associations remained significant after controlling for positive friendship quality and conflict. These findings suggest that authenticity should be more often incorporated into the study of different friendship processes.     

Monthly Instability in Early Adolescent Friendship Networks and Depressive Symptoms

This study examined (1) the relation between perceived friendship instability and depressive symptoms, (2) the directionality of this link, and (3) whether the relation between friendship instability and depressive symptoms would differ according to specific friendship status (best and secondary friendships) and contexts (school, non-school, and multiple). Participants were 102 young adolescents (51 girls; M age  =  12 years) who completed a series of five monthly telephone interviews and in-class questionnaires. Results suggested that friendship instability over a five-month period was significantly associated with an increase in depressed mood. Regarding the directionality of the influence, cross-lag analyses revealed that elevated depressive symptoms at one time point significantly predicted an increase in friendship instability by the following month, whereas friendship instability at one time point did not predict an increase in depressive symptoms the next month. Finally, participants' depressed mood appeared to be associated with instability in their best friendships (but not secondary friendships) and in their school friendships (but not non-school and multi-context friendships). The theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

A Cross-Cultural Exploration of the Stability of Children's Friendships and the Predictors of their Continuation

The purpose of this study was to explore cultural differences in children's perceptions of friendship quality and in the predictors of the subsequent continuation of their relationships. Participants were third and fourth-grade children in Florence, Italy, and Toronto, Canada. A total of 184 dyads of children who indicated that they were friends near the beginning of the school year completed questionnaires regarding the quality of their relationships. Among the Italian children, especially the girls, a higher proportion of friendships remained intact at the end of the school year than among the Canadians. Positive aspects of relationship quality at the first data collection point were associated with future friendship status, but earlier conflict within the dyad was unrelated to the continuation of friendship. The levels of conflict reported by the children were lower in the Italian sample than in Canada.     

Developmental Changes in the Priority of Perceived Status in Childhood and Adolescence

This study examined the degree to which children and adolescents prioritize popularity in the peer group over other relational domains. Participants were 1013 children and adolescents from grade 1 through senior year of college (ages 6–22 years) who were presented with a series of social dilemmas in which attaining popularity was opposed to five other priorities: friendship, personal achievement, following rules, prosocial behavior, and romantic interests. A curvilinear trend was found for the priority of popularity that peaked in early adolescence. At this age especially, participants prioritized status enhancement over other domains. Across the age range of this study, males and majority students were more preoccupied with reputational status than females and minority students. The discussion focused on the developmental functions of reputational status in early adolescence.     

The relationship among interactive justice,leader–member exchange,and workplace friendship

Workplace friendship is an important issue in business. Despite its predominance within the management field, there are several unaddressed issues. This study examines the relationship among interactive justice, leader–member exchange, and workplace friendship. Based on data collected from 309 full-time Taiwanese employees, results indicate that interactive justice is positively associated with workplace friendship. Leader–member exchange mediates such relationships. Therefore, as far as the manager is concerned, interactive justice is an effective factor for promoting workplace friendship and the mediating effect of leader–member exchange cannot be neglected.     

Theory of mind,gender, gains in friendships versus peer acceptance and anxious solitude from middle childhood through early adolescence

This investigation proposes that theory of mind (ToM) may be related more strongly to change in friendships than peer acceptance in late middle childhood through early adolescence, and examines the relation between ToM and anxious solitude. Fourth grade ToM was tested as a predictor of change in reciprocated friendships, peer acceptance, and anxious solitude from 4th to 7th grade, and, conversely, reciprocated friendships, peer acceptance, and anxious solitude in 3^rd grade were tested as predictors of 4th grade ToM. Gender moderation of these relations was evaluated. Participants were 688 American public-school children (51.5% girls), 193 of whom completed a ToM questionnaire in 4th grade. In 3rd–7th grade children and their peers reported reciprocated friendship, and peers reported peer acceptance and anxious solitude annually. A multi-group (gender split) autoregressive cross-lagged panel analysis modeled relations between ToM and reciprocated friendship, peer acceptance, and anxious solitude over time. Consistent with hypotheses, girls’ more advanced 4th grade ToM predicted incremental gains in their number of friendships two years later, but not their peer acceptance. In contrast, boys’ more advanced 4th grade ToM did not predict change in their number of friendships or peer acceptance over time. Gender differences in the relation between ToM and friendship are discussed in the context of gender-specific peer relations patterns in late middle childhood and early adolescence. Additionally, more advanced 4th grade ToM predicted gains in anxious solitude in middle school for both genders. This somewhat surprising result is discussed in relation to ToM assessment and peer relations in anxious solitary children.     

Friends in high places: A dyadic perspective on peer status as predictor of friendship quality and the mediating role of empathy and prosocial behavior

Friendships and peer status play important roles in the social landscape of adolescents and are related to developmental outcomes. Yet, how peer status is related to friendship quality and what role social skills play in this association remains unclear. In this study, we use Actor–Partner Interdependence (Mediation) Modeling (Ledermann, Macho, & Kenny, 2011 ) to investigate how two forms of peer status, preference and popularity, are related to positive and negative friendship quality in mid‐adolescence. Results show that adolescents who are friends with more preferred (i.e., likeable) and popular adolescents report higher friendship quality. These partner effects were partially mediated by adolescents’ own prosocial behavior and their friends’ empathy levels. Higher levels of empathy of one's friend and one's own lesser preference for equity explained why adolescents were more satisfied in a friendship with highly preferred (i.e., likeable) adolescents. Interestingly, empathy was not a mediator for the link between friendship quality and popularity. These findings promote a better understanding of the interplay between different levels of social complexity (i.e., individual, dyadic and peer group level) in adolescence.     

Adolescents' Sibling Relationship and Friendship Experiences: Developmental Patterns and Relationship Linkages

The goal of this study was to compare developmental changes in adolescents’ relationship experiences with their siblings versus with their best friends and to determine whether individual differences in adolescents’ sibling experiences were associated with differences in friendship experiences. Participants included 179 firstborn‐secondborn adolescent sibling pairs (N = 358). At the onset of the study, firstborns averaged 15 years of age, and secondborns, 12.5 years of age. Siblings were interviewed individually about their relationship experiences during home interviews each year for three consecutive years. Analyses focused on two relationship dimensions: emotional intimacy and control. Adolescents reported more intimacy with friends than with siblings and more control with siblings than with friends. In the face of these overall patterns, developmental changes in both firstborns’ and secondborns’ reports of intimacy differed across relationships, with sibling intimacy increasing and friendship intimacy decreasing; declines were evident in these two relationships in the case of control. Associations between sibling and friendship experiences were more apparent for control than for intimacy and for secondborns as compared to firstborns. Discussion focuses on the conditions underlying connections between adolescents’ interpersonal relationship experiences.     

FRIENDSHIP SKILLS

Children who are not adjusting to their environment because of poor peer relationship skills are well suited to group therapy. We have designed a short-term group treatment model for children with the limited focus of learning friendship skills. Each group consists of eight children (coed), between the ages of 9 and 11 working with two therapists for ten 1 1/2hr-sessions, twice a week for five weeks. The sessions are highly structured periods moving from less threatening, structured exercises/games to activities that require more personal interaction and trust. Following each activity the group verbally processes what happened.     

On the Relation of Personal Experience to Early Adolescents' Reasoning About Best Friendship Deterioration

The primary goal of this study was to investigate the association between early adolescents' generalized beliefs about the causes of best friendship deterioration and dissolution and conflict experiences in their own best friendships. An additional goal was to assess whether early adolescents' self-esteem moderated this association. Participants listed their beliefs about the causes of best friendship deterioration and dissolution, indicated whether conflicts described in a series of vignettes had occurred in one of their best friendships, and described two conflicts they had experienced in their best friendships. They also judged the seriousness of the vignette and personally experienced conflicts. As predicted, early adolescents included conflict issues they had experienced personally more frequently in their causal inventories than conflict issues that they had not experienced personally. However, contrary to predictions, the perceived seriousness of the conflicts did not influence their inclusion in participants' causal inventories. While high and low self-esteem adolescents had similar beliefs about the causes of best friendship deterioration and dissolution, low self-esteem adolescents perceived their conflicts as more serious and their friendships as more fragile.     

With a Little Help from Your Friends: The Importance of High‐quality Friendships on Early Adolescent Adjustment

The unique contributions of peer acceptance, friendship, and victimization to adjustment were examined. How these relational systems moderate the influence of one another to influence adjustment was also investigated. Friendship quality, a unique aspect of friendship, was expected to be especially important for adjustment when other relational systems were poor. A total of 238 fifth to eighth graders (boys = 109) participated in the survey‐style paradigm. Youth participants completed measures assessing their friendships and peer relationships. Teachers provided assessments of adjustment. Adolescents who had lower levels of peer acceptance, number of friends, and friendship quality had greater teacher‐reported maladjustment. Friendship quality was also an important buffer against adjustment problems when peer acceptance and number of friends were low. The outcomes of this article suggest that an approach that includes examining the quality of adolescents' friendships, peer interactions, and interactive models of relationship dimensions are informative for understanding adolescents' general adjustment.     

The Role of Perceived Friendship Self‐efficacy as a Protective Factor against the Negative Effects of Social Victimization

This study examined perceived friendship self‐efficacy as a protective factor against the negative effects associated with social victimization in adolescents. The sample consisted of 1218 participants (557 males, age range 12–17 years). Perceived friendship self‐efficacy was associated with lower internalizing scores irrespective of adolescents' social victimization level and with lower externalizing scores at low, but not high, levels of social victimization. Furthermore, the relationship between perceived friendship self‐efficacy and all forms of adjustment did not differ between boys and girls, or between adolescents in both reciprocated and unilateral very best friendships. The role of perceived friendship self‐efficacy as a protective factor amenable to intervention in social bullying at school is discussed.     

Does Campus Diversity Promote Friendship Diversity? A Look at Interracial Friendships in College*

Objectives. One of the hopes of having diverse campus environments is that the daily interaction with students from different backgrounds will promote interracial understanding and friendship. However, it is not clear to what extent interactions and friendships are multiracial. This article examines the impact of college characteristics, social distance felt toward other groups, and precollege friendship diversity on the formation of interracial friendships in the first year of college. Methods. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Freshmen, I examine how college characteristics, social distance felt toward other groups, and precollege friendship diversity affects the formation of interracial friendships in the first year of college. Results. The results show that while precollege experiences and initial attitudes do have an impact on the formation of interracial friendship in college, campus racial/ethnic diversity is also important in predicting friendship heterogeneity. Minorities have higher predicted friendship diversity than whites, but this difference nearly disappears in the most diverse schools due to the interactive effects of school diversity on friendship diversity for white students. Conclusions. This research provides evidence of the social benefits of assembling a diverse student body, particularly for white students, and can add to the debate over the continuation of affirmative action policies.     

Old,Sad and Alone

This paper reports the findings of a survey of 108 elderly heterosexual and homosexual men and women in urban Central and Southern California. The purpose of the study was to test the assumption that elderly gay men and lesbians are more depressed and socially-isolated than their heterosexual cohort. The findings indicate that there are no significant differences between older heterosexuals and homosexuals in regard to depression and social support. However, the sources of social support from friends, while heterosexual elderly derive more support from family. The findings suggest a need to redefine the concept of family to include "friendship families." Future research which investigates the way in which these friendship families are created and maintained has the potential to benefit all elderly, especially those who have no biological families or whose biological families are unavailable for support.     

Developmental Trajectories of Social Justice Values in Adolescence: Relations with Sympathy and Friendship Quality

This study examined developmental trajectories of social justice values (SJV) in a representative sample of Swiss adolescents (N = 1258) at 15 (Time 1), 18 (Time 2), and 21 years of age (Time 3). SJV and friendship quality were measured via self‐reports. Sympathy was assessed via self‐ and mother‐reports. Latent class growth analysis revealed three developmental trajectories of SJV: high‐stable (80 percent), moderate‐decreasing (17 percent), and low‐increasing (3 percent). Adolescents with low levels of self‐ and mother‐reported sympathy were more likely to be members of the low‐increasing than the high‐stable or moderate decreasing trajectory groups. Adolescents who reported low levels of sympathy and friendship quality at 15 years of age were more likely to be members of the moderate‐decreasing trajectory group than the high‐stable trajectory group. Results are discussed with respect to the potential significance of sympathy and friendship quality for understanding the development of SJV during adolescence.     

The Friendship Features of Preschool Children: Links with Prosocial Behavior and Aggression

This study assessed features of young children's friendships and determined whether the features reported were associated with prosocial and aggressive behavior. Teachers completed the friendship features questionnaires (FFQ) on the mutual friendships in their class identified by the 98 children who were interviewed (M age =3.91 years). Four subscales (support, conflict, exclusivity/intimacy, and asymmetry) were differentiated from the 36‐item questionnaire. Teacher reports of friendship features showed moderate inter‐rater reliability and were associated with teacher reports of aggression and prosocial behavior and peer reports of acceptance and rejection. Friendship support was positively correlated with prosocial behavior, friendship conflict was positively correlated with overt aggression and peer rejection, and friendship exclusivity/intimacy was positively associated with relational aggression and negatively with peer acceptance. Findings are consistent with research on school age children's friendship features and their behavioral correlates.     

Stability and Variability of Adolescents' Affiliation with Delinquent Friends: Predictors and Consequences

The effects of stability versus change in adolescents' affiliation with delinquent or nondelinquent friends over a two-year period (T1–T2) on delinquent behavior one year later (T3) were examined. In addition, T1 predictors of stability and change in the affiliation with delinquent or nondelinquent friends from T1 to T2 were assessed. Participants were 152 adolescents (77 girls, mean age 12.1 years at T1). Friends' delinquent behavior was assessed through friends' self-reports. The T1 predictor variables included adolescents' own delinquent behavior, attitude toward delinquent behavior, and parental monitoring. Adolescents' friendship affiliations at T2, but not at T1, predicted delinquent behavior at T3, suggesting a recency effect of friendship affiliation. Attitude toward delinquent behavior at T1 was the main predictor of stability versus change in adolescents' affiliation with delinquent or nondelinquent friends from T1 to T2.