The Europeanisation of Integration Policies

This article analyses the development of integration policies concerning third country nationals at the level of the European Union (EU). Starting with the discovery of recent policy developments at the European level, including new European directives mainly granting social rights to non‐EU citizens, the paper proceeds to examine the reasons that enabled this shift from the national to the European level of decision making. It concludes that integration policies have been created as a new EU policy field amidst the also fairly new policy field of immigration policies. In light of the theoretical concept of “organisational fields,” the interests and motives of the main actors involved in the emergence of this policy field are analysed. The research combines neo‐functionalist and intergovernmentalist assumptions, and it results in the following conclusions: First, a European integration policy could only be established within the emerging field of immigration policies, which laid the groundwork for member state collaborations in this highly sensitive policy area. Secondly, the European Parliament, the Council of Europe, several non‐governmental organisations and most notably the European Commission played an important role in promoting integration policies at the European level. Their engagement is interpreted as a necessary but not as a sufficient condition for the establishment of this policy field. Thirdly, these actors tried to strengthen the status of integration policies by emphasising the linkage between successful integration policies and economic and social cohesion. This semantic strategy, among other discussed reasons, facilitated the member states’ decision at the European summit in Tampere 1999 that all third country nationals shall be granted comparable rights to EU citizens.     

The peri-urban fringe: Europe's forgotten rural areas

The EC White Paper — The Future of Rural Society — identifies three “standard problems” of rural areas, but the first, which characterises areas associated with “the pressures of modern development”, receives little attention in the remainder of the document. This paper explains why it is particularly important that the peri-urban areas are not ignored in the development of rural policy. In the first place, the problems of these areas are inextricably linked to those of areas of rural decline and if such links are ignored the resulting partial analysis of rural problems may cause some important policy-options to be overlooked. Second, there continue to be pockets of disadvantage within the peri-urban areas where deprivation is likely to be increased by close proximity to an affluent majority. Finally, the paper analyses the Rural Community Strategy for Berkshire, a nonstatutory document prepared by a group drawn from governmental, quasi-governmental and non-governmental organisations in one peri-urban area of southern England. This shows that while the broad agenda of rural policy issues (covering employment, housing and services), may be very similar to that found in areas of rural decline the rationale for intervention is somewhat different, and transport issues may lie at the heart of the “standard problem” of these areas.     

The restructuring of local government in rural regions: A rural development perspective

Rural development is a multidimensional phenomenon. The political dimension, relating as it does to power, resources, accountability, priorities and choice, is a pivotal aspect of rural development. Local government is often the centrepiece of rural political systems. Interventions to reconfigure local government are therefore quintessentially rural development initiatives. They serve to supplement, neutralize or detract from other development initiatives. One way to critically examine local government restructuring policies and programmes is to determine the extent to which they accord with commonly held principles of rural development, both in terms of outcomes and process. This research critically examines a particular public policy intervention in rural Ontario, Canada. Through the application of rural development principles and criteria, it concludes that the process was antithetical to rural development, and in terms of outcomes, of dubious value. It poses several questions and challenges for rural development theory, including governance, and practice.     

The periphery of care: Emergency services for homeless people in rural areas

Until recently, homelessness in rural areas has received little recognition because of overwhelming assumptions about the urban-centredness of homeless people and their needs. This paper seeks to build on recent research that has begun to uncover some of the problems and characteristics of rural homelessness, by suggesting two significant dynamics which together can shape the experience of different groups of homeless people in rural environments. First, rural places reflect particular local qualities which contextualise both the circumstances of homelessness and the provision of services in response to those circumstances. Secondly, the contemporary governance of homelessness unfolds rather unevenly in different rural areas, producing distinct local service environments with varying degrees of ‘insider’ and ‘outsider’ status in relation to joined-up responses to the needs of homeless people. These dynamics are articulated through three case studies: a remote friary in a deep rural area of southern England; a small hostel run by a vibrant non-statutory organisation in a small town in the west of England, and two advice centres in a coastal resort in the north-east of England. Through these case studies we highlight the importance of both local reactions to the homeless other, and local relations between central government funding, local authority initiatives and charitable organisations, in the production and consumption of spaces of care in settings set in, or serving, rural environments.     

Independence pays: a cost and resource analysis of direct payments in two local authorities

Although there is an increasing amount of literature on direct payments (DP), to date there have been few studies which have examined in any detail the costs and resources associated with them. This paper presents findings from a two year study conducted in two Welsh local authorities that jointly fund an Independent Living Support (ILS) scheme. The main study was not designed to provide definitive cost comparisons with conventional services, however, cost and resource implications of DP were considered and an analysis to determine comparative costs between DP and traditional services was undertaken. The study notes the difficulty in identifying the true cost of DP and reasonable comparators with traditional services. A set of four case studies are presented comparing actual costs of DP and in‐house and independent sector services in the two local authorities studied. The comparison of costs and resources, which did not include significant costs for traditional local authority services but included the cost of the DP support scheme, found that DP was cheaper than traditional in‐house service provision and relatively cost neutral when compared with independent sector provision. User satisfaction, however, was significantly greater with DP than traditional service delivery methods. The paper also examines factors which can potentially influence the cost of DP. The study suggests that DP represent a substantial improvement over traditional arrangements from a cost–benefit perspective. There is strong evidence to suggest that greater ‘opportunity cost’ savings can be anticipated when DP schemes become more fully integrated into policy, practice and procedures.     

Prospects for rural areas in an enlarged Europe

This paper is an attempt to look into the future of the rural areas of Europe, on the basis of a set of assumptions regarding community enlargement, continued gradual integration and a relatively stable European and global political environment. In the agricultural sphere continued reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), environmental issues, the intensification and new uses for surplus land are discussed. The complexities of recent rural population and employment trends are recognised and it is suggested that in many areas diversification has already taken place, often without support from deliberate diversification policies. The paper concludes by noting the current rise in interest in rural development policy throughout Europe, and highlighting some of the conflicts between alternative visions of the way forward.     

The economic importance of air travel in high-amenity rural areas

The western United States offers a case study on the importance of access to large population centers and their markets, via road and air travel, for economic development. The vast distances between towns and cities in the American West can be a detriment to business, yet they also serve to attract technology and knowledge-based workers seeking to live in a picturesque setting. In spite of the increasing importance of amenities to migration and business location, also needed is access to markets, particularly via commercial air service. We test a new county classification system for the western United States to reflect differing degrees of access to population centers and account for the increasing importance of airports. Past classifications are based on population size and cross-county commuting. We examine the validity of this new classification and test for differences in economic performance among the three county types. Our findings show that there are three distinct Wests that can be classified using economic performance measures and socioeconomic characteristics. The results show that “metro” and “isolated” counties are clearly distinct, but “connected” counties, those that are rural in nature but have ready access to metropolitan areas via air travel, can be difficult to distinguish from “metro” and “isolated” counties. Much of the variation is explained by travel distance to airports. The findings illustrate the importance of airports in rural development, and the limitations facing those communities that are isolated from markets and population centers. The results apply to other parts of the world with similar characteristics that include large expanses of open space, natural amenities that attract migrants and stimulate new business, and different degrees of access to large population centers via road or air travel, and therefore different rates of economic growth.     

Fiscal conservatism versus local paternalism: divergent experiences of public housing decline in rural areas of England during the 1980s

This paper examines the differential response of two rural districts of England (Fenland and Waveney) to changes in council house provisioning in the 1980s. It is situated in a decade when major policy shifts in social housing policy were occurring at the national level with local governments devising new social housing strategies in response. Against a fast moving legislative background, the study examines the extent to which Stoker's categorisation of policy-making behaviour helps us to understand the diversity of policy-making influences at work in rural areas. In displaying a resentment of outside influence and a vision grounded in local considerations that offered minimal support for housing association activity, both Fenland and Waveney both exhibited attributes of what Stoker (The Politics of Local Government, second ed., 1991, Macmillan, London) called a ‘traditionalist’, Conservative stance. However, contrasts in the social housing policy of each authority over the decade revealed the limitations of this categorisation. In Fenland, pressures for housing growth led to increasing problems for those on low-incomes. Nevertheless, the District's social housing policy was dominated by fiscal conservatism and a reluctance to maintain financial support for either construction or the maintenance of council housing. By contrast, the social housing policies adopted by Waveney were characterised by a paternalistic desire to maintain a higher level of support for council housing combined with a more overtly critical attitude of central government policy. By identifying different dimensions of ‘traditionalist’ Conservative behaviour, the paper underscores the need for further studies on the role played by local leadership and key actors in policy-making processes.     

城乡统筹是解决“三农”问题的根本

十六大报告根据我国经济和社会发展的阶段性特点,立足我国国情和农村实际,提出了一个重大思路,把解决"三农"问题摆在了国民经济和社会发展的重要位置,并着重指出解决"三农"问题是全面建设小康社会的重大任务。解决"三农"问题,必须跳出传统的就农业论农业、就农村论农村的局限,从战略高度统筹城乡社会经济发展,这才是解决"三农"问题的方向。     

The centre and the local: Policy and practice in rural education provision

This paper examines the factors that are currently affecting the viability of small primary schools (90 pupils or less) in England and Wales. It is argued that the contemporary pattern of rural schooling provision is a reflection of the uneven interplay between the central state, the local state, small schools and their communities. Recent legislative reforms have increased the explanatory significance of national education policies and locally-managed schools, at the expense of disempowered local education authorities. An analysis of policies in a sample of authorities shows how the centralization of educational control, since 1988, has created a more unsympathetic educational and economic environment for smaller schools. However, a review of locally-based support strategies including interschool co-operation, anti-closure campaigns and voluntary fund-raising shows that the future for small primary schools may not be as pessimistic as past trends and a narrow focus on the educational policy framework would suggest. Therefore, this study highlights the importance of studying the impact of individual and collective social action within the context of wider structural factors shaping rural localities.     

China's agenda for an old-age insurance program in rural areas

Based on a field study conducted in August 1993 by the author, this article discusses the experimental program of old-age insurance in rural areas of China. The achievements made so far, the feasibility of old-age insurance in rural areas, and the problems encountered by the program are discussed. Policy recommendations regarding maintenance of the value of the premium, legislation, management of the program, and continuation of the family support system are proposed. It is emphasized that China urgently needs to establish a universal old-age insurance program and other social support services for the elderly. This would be akin to building a new Great Wall to help solve the serious problems of aging, reverse the trend of a high male-to-female sex ratio at birth, and further reduce fertility levels in less developed rural areas.     

Voluntary action in rural areas: the case of neighbourhood watch

This paper presents the results of an empirical investigation into active Neighbourhood Watch (NW) Schemes in Hereford and Worcester: an area which has experienced a rise in both crime rate and the number of active NW Schemes in the last ten years. The example of NW is used to examine the effectiveness of voluntary action to tackle social problems in rural areas and to consider the changing nature of social relations found there. More specifically, the study of these schemes allows an assessment to be made of the impact and nature of crime in rural areas and measures the effectiveness of NW in countering it. The paper reveals that NW does have an important role to play in reducing fear of crime and improving police relations. It confirms that NW operates with considerable social bias which is a recognised problem associated with voluntary action. The final discussion highlights the need for more systematic studies of the problem of rural crime.     

The effects of rent restructuring on social housing in English rural areas

This paper discusses the impact of central government's rent restructuring policy on social housing in rural areas in England. It examines the effect that restructuring will have on the rents set by social landlords in a set of case study areas then considers some of the likely impacts on affordability and on new investment in rural social housing. One of the primary aims of rent restructuring policy is to reduce unjustifiable differences between the rents of similar dwellings in the local authority and Registered Social Landlord sectors locally. This aim seems likely to be achieved. In doing so, it is likely that affordability will be reduced in the local authority sector but enhanced for tenants of some RSLs. However, the reduction in real RSL rents that improve affordability may further constrain RSLs’ ability to invest in new social housing in rural areas. The paper concludes that rent restructuring by itself will not materially improve the housing prospects of the less well off in rural areas.     

Researching rural conflicts: hunting,local politics and actor-networks

Conflicts over the definition, production, reproduction and consumption of rurality and rural space have become an increasingly important focus for research in recent years. Researchers have employed a range of conceptual approaches in the analysis of rural conflicts, including pluralism, class theory and regulation theory. This paper explores the potential of an alternative approach, based on the theory of actor-networks developed in the sociology of science. Actor-network theory, its potential contribution to the study of political conflicts, and its possible weaknesses, is outlined before being applied to a case study. The case study, which concerns the attempt by a local authority in south west England to prohibit staghunting on its land, is described in detail, and an actor-network account of the case constructed. The contribution of actor-network theory to researching rural political conflicts is then evaluated and a critique developed around its observed shortcomings.     

A critique of ‘new’ rural local governance: The case of gender in a rural Australian setting

Over the past decade rural social scientists have demonstrated significant interest in documenting the new forms of governance emerging in rural and regional areas. However, little attention has been given to examining the gendered aspects of these new arrangements. This paper takes up the issue of gender and governance in rural areas by reporting on the establishment, membership and practices of a new governing organisation in a local government area in a small rural township in Australia. Men hold almost all positions on the 19-member board of this institution charged with facilitating development in the shire. This is not surprising, given women's exclusion from the male-dominated networks from which appointees are selected. While this numerical dominance is important, it is not just the presence of men's bodies that is of concern to this paper. Also of interest is the way in which hegemonic discourses of masculinity are privileged by board members. This includes an emphasis on competition, entrepreneurialism, and aggression, and a focus on economic concerns over and above social issues. In conclusion, there may be a lot that is ‘new’ in the governance of contemporary Western rural nations, but what is not is that these forms of governance are gendered, just as the traditional state has always been, in a way that excludes women and feminine subjectivities.     

Social work in rural areas: a personal and professional challenge

Australians live in diverse areas, city and country, coast and hinterland, desert and rainforest, urban and remote areas. While much social work practice is located in large population centres, the problem of providing a social work service in rural and remote areas is a challenging one. This article examines some of the issues for rural social workers practicing where networks are small and multilayered, anonymity, privacy and safety for the social worker cannot be guaranteed, and a broad range of knowledge and skills are demanded. As a profession, it is important to acknowledge the complexity of delivering an ethical, responsive and appropriate service in rural areas. For rural social workers, this challenge impacts in both their professional and personal roles.     

Intermittent labour forms in U.K. agriculture: Some implications for rural areas

Intermittent labour forms — generally conceived as ‘seasonal or casual workers’, but also including labour supplied by agricultural contractors or, under cooperative arrangements, by neighbours or family members — are an established and increasingly important part of the U.K. agricultural labour market. Unfortunately, relatively little is known about either the precise level or the detailed character of such labour. Although the MAFF June Census does collect data on ‘seasonal or casual’ workers it is limited in both its scale and depth of coverage. In this paper, the results of a survey of intermittent labour forms on farms in part of north Wales and the north and south west Midlands are discussed. In general, it is shown that the true extent of intermittent employment is almost certainly much greater — perhaps by a factor of five or more — than the MAFF Census figures would imply. From the survey data it is demonstrated that farms across the range of product and size structures make extensive use of both directly-recruited and indirectly-recruited (contract) labour. More specifically, a restructuring process and the substitution of such labour forms for regular labour is evident.Having considered the level and character of intermittent employment in modern agriculture the paper goes on to consider some of the implications for rural economies. In general it is argued that the use of intermittent labour has almost certainly precipitated some radical changes in the organisation of the farm labour force and in the ability of farmers or growers to service their own needs from within. Moreover, the restructuring process has served to erode the viability of the rural economic and social structure by replacing stable job opportunities with alternatives that offer only a marginal form of job experience and limited income and which cannot in isolation support rural communities.