Understanding the discipline gap through a cultural lens: implications for the education of African American students

African American students are disciplined at rates that are disproportionately higher than Black students’ statistical representation in public schools. Coined as the discipline gap, racial and ethnic disparities are present in virtually every major school system across the United States. Because African American students seldom share the cultural frameworks of their teachers, the overrepresentation of Black students on measures of school discipline may, in part, be a function of cultural mismatches in the classroom. This article contains a synopsis of what is currently known about the discipline gap, and sets forth suggestions to address the issue. Recommendations focus on the roles of culturally responsive discipline, teacher recruitment and cultural immersion experiences. Irvine’s construct of cultural synchronization serves as the article’s interpretive basis.     

School discipline and disruptive classroom behavior: the moderating effects of student perceptions

This study examines the relationship between school discipline and student classroom behavior. A traditional deterrence framework predicts that more severe discipline will reduce misbehavior. In contrast, normative perspectives suggest that compliance depends upon commitment to rules and authority, including perceptions of fairness and legitimacy. Using school and individual-level data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 and multilevel regression modeling, the author finds support for the normative perspective. Students who perceive school authority as legitimate and teacher–student relations as positive are rated as less disruptive. While perceptions of fairness also predict lower disruptions, the effects are mediated by positive teacher–student relations. Contrary to the deterrence framework, more school rules and higher perceived strictness predicts more, not less, disruptive behavior. In addition, a significant interaction effect suggests that attending schools with more severe punishments may have the unintended consequence of generating defiance among certain youth.     

Strengthening Support to Families: Basing a Family Support Worker at a Primary School in Melbourne,Australia

This mixed methods study examines the benefits of basing a family support worker (FSW) at a primary school in Melbourne, Australia. The school has a number of high needs families requiring extensive support from school staff. Pre and post intervention data was collected on the time spent on social problems in the school community. These included managing students with behavioural and emotional issues, providing support and practical assistance to parents with problems and liaising with agencies to access support for students and families. Pre and post intervention Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires were completed by teachers whose students and families were clients of the FSW (n = 8) and compared with non clients (n = 10). Semi-structured interviews were held with FSW clients (n = 6), class teachers (n = 3) the assistant principal, principal and the FSW. Employing a FSW showed a reduction in the amount of time spent on welfare cases for teachers, and therefore a monetary saving for the school. Qualitative data collected from school staff and FSW clients was overwhelmingly positive. Having a FSW based at a primary school provides savings in teacher time, and expenses to the school. Teachers are freed to concentrate on education and the parents valued the relationship provided by the FSW.     

“Is it Our Job to Teach them to Read or to Act Appropriately?”: Teachers’ and Staff's Perceptions of an Alternative School

This study examines the strengths and weaknesses of an alternative school for at‐risk youth in an urban area in the United States. The data are based on in‐depth, semistructured interviews with the school's 23 full‐time employees. The data reveal that according to the teachers and staff of the alternative school, there are three main strengths of the school: developing positive teacher–student relationships, providing powerful pedagogy, and establishing a supportive environment; and three main weaknesses: responding inconsistently to behavior problems, creating poor transitions to adulthood, and producing a physically dangerous school environment. The findings of this study suggest a “culture of care” exists at the expense of consistent discipline—resulting in a “culture of danger.” The findings are presented and discussed, and subsequent program and policy recommendations are made in an effort to better understand the strengths and weaknesses of an alternative school and to contribute to the effectiveness schooling for at‐risk youth.     

Schools as racialized organizations in policy and practice

In this paper we examine schooling inequalities through drawing from the contributions of racialized organizations. We apply the components of this racial theory to offer a new framework for examining racial inequalities in US K-12 schools. We analyze case studies to demonstrate how the four tenants of racialized organizations operate in three schools. In particular, we highlight how these tenants surface through schools' policies (school rules around discipline, language, and tracking) and practices (interactions between students, teachers and staff). We offer a framework for understanding how schools are shaped by the racial hierarchy at the organizational level. We close by considering implications and suggestions for future research.     

The ecology of social support in relation to academic and behavioral self-perceptions among African American boys and girls

ABSTRACT

In this research, the ecology of perceived social support was examined across multiple contexts (i.e., parents, teachers, classmates, and close friends) in relation to self-perception indices among African American school-age children. Social support is multifaceted and includes positive regard from others, practical support, and stability of care. While there is ample evidence that levels of perceived social support are predictive of self-perceptions, there is less information regarding ecologies of social support. African American children are subject to disparate discipline in schools which can create discontinuity in social support across home and school. Furthermore, research has suggested African American boys and girls have different experiences and expectations across parent, school, and peer contexts. Hence, the question arises as to what ecologies of social support are more or less impactful, and for whom? Cluster and canonical correlation analyses were employed to identify and create relevant ecologies across adult and peer social support items. The results suggested the following: a) continuous positive social support was associated with enhanced self-perceptions, b) some patterns of discontinuity were particularly germane for self-perceptions, and c) relations between perceived social support and self-perceptions outcomes varied by gender. Practical implications are discussed.     

“It’s not rocket science!“: High school sociology teachers’ conceptions of sociology

Since academic sociology’s birth in this country, sociologists have not been shy about publicly praising and ridiculing the discipline. Though sociologists have been the primary participants in the seemingly endless debates about sociology’s proper subject matter, methods, and purpose, there is another group that has also struggled over the past 95 years to formulate a conception of the discipline—high school sociology teachers. At this point, we know virtually nothing about what the thousands of high school teachers who offer sociology each year, actually think about the discipline. This paper uses questionnaire and interview data collected from high school sociology teachers to examine their thoughts on four topics: (1) sociology’s strengths, (2) its weaknesses, (3) whether high school students are capable of understanding the discipline, and (4) appropriate course objectives. The results indicate that high school teachers view sociology quite differently from academic sociologists, and that their conceptions are based primarily on “textbook sociology.” I conclude by discussing the far-reaching implications of teachers’ current thinking about the discipline. I wish to thank Larry nichols for offering helpful comments on an earliar draft of this paper.     

To educate or to incarcerate: Factors in disproportionality in school discipline

The school-to-prison pipeline describes the process by which school suspension/expulsion may push adolescents into the justice system disproportionately based on race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender. The current study moves the field forward by analyzing a survey of a diverse sample of 2539 students in 10th to 12th grade in Southern California to examine how demographic, individual, and family factors contribute to disparities in office referral and suspension/expulsion. African Americans, boys, and students whose parents had less education were more likely to be suspended/expelled. Higher levels of student academic preparation for class, hours spent on homework, and academic aspiration were associated with less school discipline. Findings suggest that helping students engage in school may be protective against disproportionate school discipline.     

Stakeholder perceptions of contextual factors related to PBIS implementation in high need schools

Positive behavior intervention and supports (PBIS) is a thoroughly researched three-tiered framework for preventing and treating challenging behavior in schools. While more than 20 years of research contribute to the literature base, less is known about PBIS implementation in high-needs school settings, particularly those that serve students predominantly from low-income families and majority minority student populations across urban and rural districts. This study investigated the critical contextual factors of PBIS implementation from the stakeholder perspective. Specifically, we surveyed 161 participants including teachers, school staff members, and administrators who were PBIS team members and had received technical assistance in PBIS implementation. The completed surveys were analyzed with participants and their schools coded for district type, Title I funding, and position in order to determine how the perceptions of issues such as buy-in, administrator support, PBIS in secondary school settings, and poverty affect PBIS implementation and team needs. The factor analysis and resulting structure along with statistically significant results for each factor are presented along with implications.     

The relevance of Kuhn's model of science to discipline development in sociology «1»

Thomas Kuhn's model of scientific development during the last two decades is reviewed critically in light of its increasing popularity in the sociology of sociology literature. This model, along with recent criticisms and rebuttals by Kuhn, is described, and the circularity of this position as a basis for paradigm development is noted. Several problems are identified for contemporary sociology. We conclude that Kuhn's model can not be used as a strategy for generating a scientific paradigm for the discipline of sociology and, at best, Kuhn's work serves only as a heuristic device for discipline analysis.     

An evaluation of school district guidance and counseling programs: Procedures and results

This evaluation examines the administrative history, staffing levels, and content of school district guidance and counseling activities. Case studies were made in a 50% random sample of a district's 45 elementary schools. Eight hundred teachers, parents, and students were interviewed. All school plans were reviewed. Five-year staffing patterns and staff changes were studied. All district staff with guidance and counseling responsibilities recorded characteristics of guidance and counseling contacts for 15 days. Schools with and without counselors were studied to estimate differences in who receives services and what is provided. Results show systematic differences in the level and kind of services provided secondary and elementary students. Approximately one-third of the schools studied had stable programs. Schools with stable programs provided a broader range of services and distributed them in a more equitable manner.     

Sociology in the high school: Perceptions of those who teach it

The following research note reports two major findings of a more detailed study of the opinions, training, and practices of teachers of high school sociology in Texas. Two major findings of interest to the discipline emerge from the research: (1) high school teachers are only marginally prepared in the field of sociology itself; (2) teachers generally give sociology's reputation as a discipline a favorable rating, while at the same time showing concerns about whether or not they would recommend sociology as a college major. The implications of teacher attitudes and training for the discipline are explored.     

Factors that influence acceptance of web-based e-learning systems for the in-service education of junior high school teachers in Taiwan

Web-based e-learning is not restricted by time or place and can provide teachers with a learning environment that is flexible and convenient, enabling them to efficiently learn, quickly develop their professional expertise, and advance professionally. Many research reports on web-based e-learning have neglected the role of the teacher's perspective in the acceptance of using web-based e-learning systems for in-service education. We distributed questionnaires to 402 junior high school teachers in central Taiwan. This study used the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as our theoretical foundation and employed the Structure Equation Model (SEM) to examine factors that influenced intentions to use in-service training conducted through web-based e-learning. The results showed that motivation to use and Internet self-efficacy were significantly positively associated with behavioral intentions regarding the use of web-based e-learning for in-service training through the factors of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. The factor of computer anxiety had a significantly negative effect on behavioral intentions toward web-based e-learning in-service training through the factor of perceived ease of use. Perceived usefulness and motivation to use were the primary reasons for the acceptance by junior high school teachers of web-based e-learning systems for in-service training.     

Developmental Outcomes of School Attachment Among Students of Mexican Origin

We used a longitudinal community study of 674 grade school children (Grades 5, 6, 7, and 8; 337 males, 337 females) of Mexican origin to examine outcomes of school attachment. Attachment to school is important in this population given the high level of school dropout rates of Mexican‐origin students. Results indicated that, on average, school attachment from fifth to sixth grade remains stable, but declines from sixth to eighth grade. Boys had lower levels of school attachment at fifth grade but followed similar patterns of change as girls did. Attachment to teachers, peer competence, school aspirations and expectations, and substance‐use cognitions emerged as longitudinal outcomes of level or changes in school attachment. Gender moderated associations of school attachment.     

Classifying At‐Risk High School Youth: The Influence of Exposure to Community Violence and Protective Factors on Academic and Health Outcomes

Using cluster analysis, 789 predominately Latino and African American high school youth were classified into varying academic at‐risk profiles using self‐reported levels of academic confidence, motivation to attend school, perceived family support, connections with teachers and peers, and exposure to violence. Six clusters emerged, 5 of which were identified as “at‐risk.” The clusters were examined in relation to academic stress, health status, grades, and school retention. Exposure to violence was one distinguishing feature of youth identified as most vulnerable, vulnerable, and resilient; however, youth identified as resilient recorded better academic outcomes.     

An empirical test of a model of academic expectations among youth in residential care

In the last decade accumulating evidence across many countries points to the poor educational outcomes of youth formerly placed in care and their under-representation in higher education. Academic expectations in late adolescence are considered a key marker for educational attainments in young adulthood. Although these expectations were studied extensively, they have seldom been examined among youth in substitute care. The goal of the present research was to develop and test a model to predict academic expectations of Israeli adolescents placed in residential facilities. The study sample consisted of 1360 adolescents from 34 youth villages who responded to self-report questionnaires tapping their academic expectations, current academic achievements and various aspects of their family, school and facility's environment, expected to be associated with their academic expectations.Structural equation modeling indicated that parents' level of education was indirectly related to youths' expectations, an association mediated by youth's current academic achievements and parents' aspirations for their children's educational success. Higher levels of teacher and staff support were also found to contribute to higher academic expectations; however, whereas teacher support effects were mediated by youth achievements, staff support was found to have direct, as well as moderating effects, on achievement-expectations relationship.The findings suggest the importance of an integrative approach in the efforts to promote educational expectations among adolescents in residential facilities. Such an approach, encompassing the multiple adult functions responsible for youth development within such settings, could be an important step in enhancing the chances for future academic success of this vulnerable group.     

The Child Labor Amendment in the Social Studies Class

As part of a geography-based minority recruiting program (MRP), teachers were asked to serve as mentors for teams of high school students interested in both postsecondary education and geography as a major discipline or career path. The goal was to determine whether teacher participation in MRP programs was an effective tool to mentor underrepresented populations in geography. One component of the program evaluation examined the impact of teacher participation in a MRP by analyzing participating teachers’ classroom strategies and students’ performance in the school year following the summer program. Teachers were surveyed and participated in follow-up interviews during the school year following their participation in the MRP to determine the effects of the program's professional development components. The research hoped to reveal: (a) the participant-teachers’ function and role as mentors for students and the changes of participant-teachers’ behaviors, and (b) how any changes in their classrooms have affected their students’ understanding of geography. Data collection, reduction and analysis followed a grounded-theory approach to qualitative research. The research confirmed that participants leave professional development with an increased enthusiasm for and a better understanding of geography that they shared with their colleagues and students. Furthermore, teachers reported overcoming campus and district barriers in order to implement strategies and technologies provided during the MRP. More promising findings validate the prevailing thought that the positive energy of the MRP continues to reach into the classrooms in the following years. By understanding the impacts of professional development on participating teachers, the discipline may better recruit and retain high-achieving minority students.     

中学教师职业压力及提高生命质量的健康促进策略研究

探讨中学教师生命质量、职业压力和体育锻炼特点,为健康促进策略研究提供科学依据。通过对河北省廊坊市1183(男598,女585)名中学教师的体育锻炼与生命质量和职业压力因素间的关系进行研究,结果显示中学教师生命质量各维度得分普遍较低,男教师相对较好;中学教师职业压力各维度得分普遍较高,女教师相对较低;对中学男教师生命质量有显著影响作用的是锻炼次数、考试考评、学生因素、待遇环境、工作责任和锻炼时间等;对女教师生命质量有显著影响的是考试考评、工作责任、外部期望、角色任务和待遇环境。由此得出结论:体育锻炼在中学男教师生命质量与职业压力之间起到显著的调节作用,但在女教师中却未能表现出来。     

Implementation of a school-wide prevention programme-teachers’ and headmasters’ perceptions of organizational capacity

This study focuses on schools’ organizational capacity to implement a Swedish school-wide programme, Prevention in School (PS). It is based on semi-structured interviews with seven headmasters and 13 teachers from seven Swedish schools. The interviews were analyzed by the use of qualitative content analysis.The findings show that the adoption of a comprehensive intervention like PS challenges the school organization as the staff encountered a variety of organizational barriers when implementing the programme. Factors connected to lack of consensus, collaboration and insufficient programme management were the main barriers that were identified. Teachers wanted a more extensive support from their headmasters in terms of participation in different programme activities. It was emphasized that peer coaches need to be prepared for their task, although the headmasters found it difficult to be able to choose those teachers who they perceived as the most suitable.It is concluded that leadership, coaching and staff selection need particular attention when implementing a programme like PS, since those factors have been defined as important implementation drivers, both in this study and previously.     

Perceptions of students' locus of control of discipline among pre‐service and in‐service teachers in multicultural classrooms

The purpose of this study was to determine teacher perceptions of students' behavior/misbehavior in the classroom, and the differences between pre‐service and in‐service teachers' perceptions of students' locus of control of discipline (i.e. the source of discipline) in multicultural classrooms. The study also investigated perceptions in three related dimensions of discipline: motivation, mechanism and the basis of discipline. Furthermore, the study generated data to determine whether culture was perceived as a factor in teachers' perceptions of students' locus of control of behavior in the classroom. Findings were intended to assist in determining choices for appropriate intervention strategies for use in effective discipline or management of behavior in multicultural classrooms.