An application of multiple discrepancies theory (MDT) to seniors

MDT posits that satisfaction and happiness are functions of 7 perceived discrepancies, viz., between what one has and wants, relevant others have, needs, deserves, has had in the past, expected to have and expects to have. The theory and its historic antecedents are explained. The theory was applied to a sample of 450 seniors from 4 areas of Ontario. Briefly, MDT accounted for about a third of the variance in reported life satisfaction for the whole group and both sexes separately, and about a quarter of the variance in happiness.     

Tests of the causal directions of global — Life facet satisfaction relationships

Previous research generally has supported multiple discrepancies theory (MDT) of the processes by which individuals arrive at judgments of satisfaction with various aspects of their lives as well as with life overall. However, the nature of possible causal relationships between overall and life facet satisfaction has been ignored. The purpose of this study was to extend MDT by testing alternative theoretical models which specified Bottom-up, Top-Down, and Bidirectional relationships between overall life satisfaction and satisfaction with 11 life facets in a sample of 1354 U.S. college students. Results most strongly favored the Bidirectional model in which the overall — life facet satisfaction relationship varied across life domains. The need to identify boundary conditions which determine the direction of the overall — life facet satisfaction relationship is discussed.     

Health satisfaction: A detailed test of the multiple discrepancies theory model

The present study employs calculated gaps to test the MDT model in the domain of health satisfaction. The results appear to contradict Multiple Discrepancies Theory in its present format, although it is possible that this is a result of the use of calculated rather than perceived gaps. The present findings specifically highlight the important influence of perceived current health status on health satisfaction ratings. It is argued that the basic principle of MDT (that perceived discrepancies between one's own current state of affairs and various relevant comparison levels, have an important influence in determining satisfaction) is not in doubt, but that the precise nature and point of influence of these perceived discrepancies in the formulation of satisfaction ratings may not be accurately portrayed by the current MDT model.     

Comparing Multiple Discrepancies Theory to Affective Models of Subjective Wellbeing

The Subjective Wellbeing (SWB) literature is replete with competing theories detailing the mechanisms underlying the construction and maintenance of SWB. The current study aimed to compare and contrast two of these approaches: multiple discrepancies theory (MDT) and an affective-cognitive theory of SWB. MDT posits SWB to be the result of perceived discrepancies between multiple standards of comparison. By contrast, affective-cognitive theory asserts that SWB is primarily influenced by trait affect, and indirectly influenced by personality and cognition through trait affect. Participants comprised 387 individuals who responded to the 5th longitudinal survey of the Australian Unity Wellbeing Index. Results of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) indicated the poorest fit to the data for the MDT model. The affective-cognitive model also did not provide a good fit to the data. A purely affective model provided the best fit to the data, was the most parsimonious, and explained 66% of variance in SWB.     

Subjective Health-Related Quality of Life in Homeless and Vulnerably Housed Individuals and Its Relationship with Self-Reported Physical and Mental Health Status

Although the association between homelessness and objective indicators of poor health is well-established, little research has focused on the subjective health-related quality of life of homeless and vulnerably housed (HVH) individuals. This study examined the subjective health-related quality of life of HVH individuals, using the Multiple Discrepancies Theory (MDT) Scale for Health of the Quality of Life for Homeless and Hard-to-House Individuals (QoLHHI) Inventory, and its association with self-reported functional health status, as measured by the SF-12, and self-reported physical and mental health conditions in a sample of 100 HVH individuals recruited in Vancouver, Toronto and Ottawa. Our findings indicate that physical and mental health conditions are highly prevalent among HVH individuals and that the SF-12 Physical and Mental Component Summary scores are substantially lower compared to US population norms. The MDT Health items were not statistically significantly associated with physical or mental health conditions and only showed correlations of small to moderate magnitude with the SF-12 Component Summary Scales. These findings suggest that the QoLHHI MDT Scale for Health can provide information about HVH individuals’ subjective health experiences that is different from, and can serve as a valuable complement to, health status information for use in research and evaluation studies, as well as for policy purposes to make informed decisions based on subjective health-related quality of life data from HVH individuals.     

Values,Performance and Subjective Well-Being in the Sustainability Movement: An Elaboration of Multiple Discrepancies Theory

Building on multiple discrepancies theory (MDT) as developed by Michalos (1985, 1991), the present study seeks to extend the application of MDT by operationalizing multiple discrepancies or “gaps” between values and performance for a representative group from the sustainability movement (back-to-the-landers), and then comparing the ability of the operationalized discrepancies, in competition with a series of demographic and process variables, to explain variance in a set of subjective well-being (SWB) measures. In the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and zero-order correlation equations, the value-performance discrepancies demonstrate consistent statistically significant relationships with the SWB measures. In the multiple regression models, however, the gap variables are not as prominent as other process variables, although they do add variance to SWB, validating the general utility of MDT. It appears, though, that there are other dimensions, many of them specific to the back-to-the-land way of life, that can compensate for the discrepancies between values and performance.     

Satisfaction,happiness and well-being of Dutch students

Applying Multiple Discrepancies Theory (MDT), the well-being of Dutch students was measured.To test relevant portions of MDT a questionnaire, originally developed by Michalos, was administered to a group of students at Leiden University, the Netherlands.     

A Facet Theory Approach to Examining Overall and Life Facet Satisfaction Relationships

Multiple Discrepancies Theory – MDT – (Michalos, 1985)has been established as a leading theory of lifesatisfaction, on the basis of which numerous studieson satisfaction have been designed. Previous researchexamining overall and life facet satisfactionrelationships combined various approaches tounderstanding the interrelationships between thevariables by which individuals measure theirsatisfaction in life. Recently, Lance, Mallard andMichalos (1995) extended the scope of study byexamining the theoretical relationship between overalllife satisfaction (OLS) and satisfaction in variouslife facets (life facet satisfaction – LFS) among1,354 US college students. The present study extendsMDT one step further by applying a Facet Theory (FT)statistical approach to our understanding of the sameset of data. In this way a holistic model emerges,presenting not only the relationship between OLS andLFS, but also the interrelationships between and amongeach and every facet. Results of this analysis arepresented through the correlation matrix and SmallestSpace Analysis (SSA) diagrams. These results arecompared to Levy and Guttmans (1975) figures in theirstudy on the structure of well-being; although the twostudies examined different populations and askeddifferent questions, the final structural organizationof the data is strikingly similar.     

Population programme of China]

Results of population programs started in China during the last decade have attracted worldwide attention. The Chinese population issues are important due to the following characteristics: 1) China is the most populated country in the world, with over 1 billion people (22% of world population), by the end of 1980; 2) its population is 80% rural; 3) despite improved living conditions that have helped lower the mortality rate from over 20/1000 before Liberation to 10/1000 in the 1960s and finally 6-8/1000 during the last decade, the Chinese population has increased from 540 million soon after Liberation to the current 1 billion, with an average yearly growth rate of 2%; 4) China has a young population, with 36.8% under 14 years old and less than 5% over 65, hence education and employment are big issues; and 5) due to longterm backward economy resulting from feudal and colonial influence before Liberation, efforts in developing a strong Chinese economy have met with many obstacles. The above 5 features of the Chinese population have important bearing on solving China's population problems and in building its economy, developing its society, and realizing its 4 modernizations. Although China is self-sufficient despite its large population, it faces many problems and challenges especially in the areas of educating its young population and subsequent employment. To achieve a strong economy and to improve the welfare of its people, China has put efforts into controlling the size and improving the quality of its population during the past decade. Programs in population control will continue to take priority in China.     

Comments on papers for the special issue onGlobal Report on Student Well-Being

This is an overview and brief response to articles published in this special issue of the journal which deal with follow-up studies based on Multiple Discrepancies Theory (MDT) and myGlobal Report on Studies Well-Being.     

India: community approach to population education

Since 1976 the Sri Venkateswara University has established 30 population education cells in affiliated colleges in south India. Population awareness programs have been developed on a modular scale. Seminars, lectures, debates, research projects, surveys, and orientation courses are included in the programs. At the S.V. Arts College in Srikalahasti 29 volunteers conducted a demographic survey of a rural area. Students at the S.T.P.C. College Kurnool took oaths not to marry until age 25 years and not to take a dowry. A prototype kit of 6 lectures based on the concept of population education and its integration into existing curricula has been developed for use at seminars.     

Family planning among the Maranaos

An effort has been made to introduce population education concepts and family planning practice to the Maranaos of Lanao del Sur province in the southern Philippines. A survey conducted in 1969 revealed that an overwhelming majority were opposed to family planning, because of the belief that it ran counter to the teachings of the Koran. In 1969, Dansalan College 1st opened a maternity clinic and, subsequently, established a family planning clinic on campus, the only one of its kind in the province. Since the clinic began operations, a total of about 1370 acceptors have been recruited. The oral contraceptive is the most preferred method among the acceptors, accounting for 60%, followed by the injectable. Additionally, the college has integrated family planning and population education into its Community Service Program. Despite several years of effort by Dansalan College, however, Maranaos have failed to respond significantly to practicing family planning. College officials continue to be optimistic, recognizing that the effort will take years of motivating and education.     

A simple model for linking life tables by survival mortality ratios

Patterns of variation in mortality can be studied by measuring changes in selected life table functions. A model is proposed in which the rate of change over time in the life table survivorship probability at any age has been assumed as proportional to the product of its own value and its complementary probability or the probability of dying by that age, where the proportion is the same for all ages and depends only on the time duration between successive life tables. The end result is that the logit functions of the survivorship probabilities at two points in time are linearly related with a slope of one. The projecting power of the model has been tested by using U.S. life tables for the years 1950 and 1970 as well as Coale and Demeny's regional model life tables. In the latter case, the model produced surprisingly close matches even when the expectations of life differed by as much as 20 years.     

Suicide and happiness: Seven tests of the connection

Indirectly, this paper examines the empirical connections between suicide and happiness by looking at the connection of each with seven standard demographic characteristics. They are sex, age, race, parental status, marital status, religiosity and employed status. These seven are chosen because a lot of data are available. We then examine the relationship of these same seven variables to suicide. Our findings indicate that marital status, religiosity and employment status have a (predicted) similar effect on suicide and happiness. Parenthood has an unclear relationship with suicide and happiness. Finally, sex, age and race have dissimilar effects on suicide and happiness. On the basis of this admittedly preliminary analysis, it would be impossible to conclude that happiness and suicide are closely (if inversely) related. First, there is the chance that suicides or happiness levels have been systematically misreported. Second, there may be a problem with our lumping together happiness and satisfaction. Third, there may be a problem with the seven particular independent variables we examined. Had we examined a different seven (or seventy) we might have drawn a different conclusion. In particular, we might have done better with comparative (or cognitive) variables derived from multiple discrepancies theory (MDT), than with demographic ones. In the end, the connection between happiness and suicide is far from certain. More research is needed.     

少数民族人口分布及其变动分析

本文基于2005年全国1％抽样调查数据,并结合历次人口普查资料,综合分析了我国少数民族人口分布及其变动趋势。一方面,我国少数民族人口分布的基本特点是在长期的历史过程中形成的,各民族人口的分布格局有着非凡的稳定性,即少数民族主要分布于西部内陆地区、居住相对集中、大多生活在农村。另一方面,随着经济社会的巨大发展,民族政策的变化,交通工具的日益发达,民族人口的再分布渐趋活跃。少数民族人口分布呈现向东部沿海地区扩散的态势,人口分布趋于分散,城市化进程加速。     

The population situation and its relation to the economy in Turkey]

In southwest Asia, Turkey is a leading nation in collecting complete data on its population through the use of a modern census. Based on available information, the development of Turkey's population can be summarized as follows: 1) in the last 20 years, Turkey's population increase rate has been 2% annually, very high by world standards; 2) the average age is young, and the population's burden coefficient is above 80%; and 3) the geographical distribution of the population is uneven. The population density in central, eastern, and southeastern parts of the country is low, while the coastal provinces near the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Aegean Sea have a high population density. In the last 50 years, the political situation in Turkey has remained stable. The national economy has developed rapidly, and the infant mortality rate has declined as a result of advancements in medicine and health care. Since Turkey is an Islamic country, birth control and abortion are not popular. The traditional early marriage for women and high illiteracy rate among women have contributed to a rapid population growth. In the past 20 years, however, the national economy has been overburdened by a rapid population growth. Problems of unemployment, a housing shortage in cities, inadequate public health facilities, a shortage of schools, a decline in farm land and inadequate food supplies have become increasingly obvious. Economically speaking, Turkey is much better than most developing nations. With its current foundation and rich natural resources, the country needs only to reduce the natural population increase rate slightly in order to achieve a balanced economic development.     

The effects of the age and structure of population on family change]

The age structure of a population is one basic factor of population research. It is not only affected by birth, death, immigration, and marriage, but it also reflected in changes of family size. The article analyzed it from two aspects: (1) the age structure of population acts on the size and structure of the family. The younger the age structure, the larger the family size. Otherwise, it is the opposite. According to the 1982 census, 35.4% of the population was 0-14 years in rural areas, and average family size was 4.6; but in urban areas 26.0% of the population was 0-14 years and family size was 3.9. The family was characterized as a nuclear family as industrialization in economic development increased and the population aged. In the 1982 census, 64.7% were nuclear family and 6% were aging population in China. Three- generation families (or more) have decreased dramatically. The change of family size and structure is affected by change of internal family age structure. The younger population (0-14 years) is dependent and 90% live with their parents. The adult population (15-59) years are more affected by marriage, birth and social economic action. Families are established in this age period and give much more effect to fertility. The aging population (over 60) years is facing changes. They appear to be a "Defect" family because the wife or husband has passed away. They change from independent to dependent. 78.3% population over 60 years were dependent on children or social welfare, only 21.7% were independent according to the survey in Beijing Changping County.     

农村50岁以上独生子女父母家庭经济状况分析——基于2010年对全国5县的调查

根据2010年对全国5县(区)的抽样调查,大多数50岁以上农村独生子女父母在经济生活方面并未真正实现少生快富,他们在晚年经济保障上存在很大问题。目前在养老的经济支撑上是以个人为主、子女和社会为辅的格局。多数家庭自身养老经济支撑能力薄弱,收入偏低,超过一半家庭经济收入低于贫困线,接近80%的父母不同程度感觉经济生活窘困。这些曾为我国人口控制做出突出贡献的老人养老的经济状况值得关注。     

American Community Survey overview and the role of external evaluations

In 2010 the U.S. Census Bureau will achieve its goal of eliminating the long form sample from the decennial census and will produce its first set of five-year data products from the full sample American Community Survey (ACS). This paper provides an overview of the call for change that prompted the Census Bureau to pursue the development of a new approach to collecting socioeconomic and housing data. The paper details the evolution of the ACS from its earliest origins to its current design and describes that design in detail. The current design has benefited from external debate and consultation. Work such as that described later in this journal exemplifies the key role that external users and advisors have played, and will continue to play, in the evolution of the ACS. Over the past 10 years, the Census Bureau has undertaken research and testing to demonstrate operational feasibility and to assess survey quality. Research has also compared ACS and Census 2000 data. ACS staff are involved in survey improvement efforts and continue to confront survey challenges. In the next few years the ACS will give priority to developing user tools to aid all users in the correct interpretation of multi-year estimates. The ultimate validation of the ACS is, however, in the hands of users. Continued input from the people who are responsible for administering and evaluating programs, identifying local needs, and planning for the future will allow the ACS to grow in value and utility.