The impact of age vs. life experience on the gender role attitudes of women in different cohorts

Much research has concluded that the gender role attitudes of older women are more traditional in orientation. This line of research, however, has often confounded the impact of age and cohort. Consequently, cohort differences in life experiences have not been systematically explored. This study addresses the relationship between age and gender role attitudes, taking into account the potential mediating effects of life experiences and controlling for cohort. The conclusions suggest that the impact of age on gender role attitudes is not as strong as might be expected. Rather, the results show that the life experiences of different cohorts are better predictors of gender role attitudes among older women, though such experiences do not have the same impact on all women.     

The Psychosocial Context of Bereavement for Older Women Who Were Caregivers for a Spouse With Advanced Cancer

The psychosocial context of bereavement for older women who were caregivers for a spouse with advanced cancer was explored qualitatively with 13 older women. Interviews and diaries were analyzed using constant comparison. The psychosocial context emerged as the intrapersonal : exhaustion, loneliness, pain, and recovering physical health; the interpersonal: finding a new way through both supportive and difficult relationships; and the community/societal: a loss of identity, pressure to move on, financial concerns, and relying on formal supports. The psychosocial context of bereavement for older women who were caregivers is uniquely challenging and must be considered when providing care and programs of support.     

Education and Male-Female Differences in Later-Life Cognition: International Evidence From Latin America and the Caribbean

This study explores the role of early-life education for differences in cognitive functioning between men and women aged 60 and older from seven major urban areas in Latin America and the Caribbean. After documenting statistically significant differences in cognitive functioning between men and women for six of the seven study sites, I assess the extent to which these differences can be explained by prevailing male-female differences in education. I decompose predicted male-female differences in cognitive functioning based on various statistical models for later-life cognition and find robust evidence that male-female differences in education are a major driving force behind cognitive functioning differences between older men and women. This study therefore suggests that early-life differences in educational attainment between boys and girls during childhood have a lasting impact on gender inequity in cognitive functioning at older ages. Increases in educational attainment and the closing of the gender gap in education in many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean may thus result in both higher levels and a more gender-equitable distribution of later-life cognition among the future elderly in those countries.     

Self-Regulatory Driving Behaviors: Gender and Transportation Support Effects

This study examined the relationship between transportation support and self-regulatory driving behaviors of 566 community-dwelling older adults living in retirement communities, with a focus on gender differences. The results of logistic regression analysis showed that older women were more likely to avoid driving at night or on the highway than their male counterparts. Transportation support from peer friends was found to increase the likelihood of self-regulatory driving behaviors. The findings of this study imply that transportation policy and driving safety programs for older adults need to be developed, considering available transportation alternatives and gender differences in driving behaviors.     

Economics and Well-Being of Older Divorced Persons

The purpose of this research was to compare gender differences in postdivorce cconomic factors and in the well-being of older persons who were in long-term marital relationships. Although more women were depressed, overall there were no significant gender differences in postdivorce adjustment. Data suggest present income is the best predictor of well-being for both genders, and reliance on types of gender related income have a negative impact on women. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for structural changes, policy modifications, and direct practice issues.     

A Demographic Profile of Obesity in the Adult and Veteran US Populations in 2008

Obesity is increasing in the US population and seems to be disproportionately burdening disadvantaged groups. Veterans using the Veterans Healthcare System (VHS) tend to be more disadvantaged socioeconomically than the general population and in poorer health. It is important to understand how the veteran population differs from or is similar to the general population and whether the VHS is able to mediate obesity risk among veterans. This research assesses the sociodemographic, behavioral, and health risk factors for obesity in the US adult and veteran populations in 2008. We use data from the 2008 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) to empirically assess predictors of obesity risk. We find that women have lower odds of obesity than men once controls for sociodemographic, behavioral, and health conditions are included in our models. We also observe a veteran obesity disadvantage in the full adult sample when conducting bivariate tests, but no significant association with the odds of obesity in the logistic regression models among veterans and non-veterans. Gender specific models indicate that male veterans have increased odds of obesity compared to non-veterans, but no difference in obesity risks among veterans and non-veterans are noted for women, controlling for all variables. Further, we find no significant differences in the odds of obesity of veterans using VHS for all, some, or none of their health care needs; further no significant gender differences in obesity risk were observed among VHS usages and non-users. Based on the strong, positive association between the number of chronic health conditions and the odds of obesity, we suggest that health policy should focus efforts on weight management counseling for obese patients that have obesity related co-morbidities, and more targeted attention to male veterans would help to address the high level of obesity in this vulnerable population group.     

Gender differences in the experience of loneliness in U.S. Chinese older adults

This study aimed to explore the gender differences in the experiences of loneliness in the U.S. Chinese older population. The data were drawn from the PINE study, a population-based study of U.S. Chinese adults aged 60 years and older. The Revised–University of California at Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (R-UCLA) was used to measure loneliness. Overall, older Chinese women (28.3%) had a higher rate of loneliness than older men (23.3%, p < .001). In particular, women were more likely to sometimes or often experience a lack of companionship than men (22.9% vs. 17.3%, p < .001). Older women living with fewer people, with lower health status, poorer quality of life, and worsening health changes over the past year were more likely than men to experience any loneliness. This study indicates that gender differences exist in the prevalence, symptoms, and correlates of loneliness. Longitudinal studies should be undertaken to understand gender differences in risk factors and outcomes of loneliness.     

Gender and Aging in the Developing World: Where Are the Men?

In recent years, both population aging and gender issues have gained prominence in international forums concerned with population. It is frequently asserted or implied that older women are universally more vulnerable to social, economic, and health disadvantages than older men. The most significant manifestation of this exclusive concern with women when considering gender and aging is the Plan of Action adopted by the Second World Assembly on Aging in 2002. The assumed relative disadvantage of elderly women is commonly attributed to gender differences in earlier life experiences. But are older women truly disadvantaged globally with respect to all or most essential aspects of well‐being? The authors provide empirical evidence that clearly shows that older women are not invariably disadvantaged vis‐à‐vis men. In particular, they call into question the wisdom and equity of a virtually exclusive emphasis on the needs of women when incorporating gender concerns into policies and programs related to aging. A more balanced perspective that recognizes gender as a potential, but not necessarily central, marker of vulnerability for various aspects of well‐being in specific settings and times, and that allows for male as well as female disadvantage, would serve the current and future elderly generations far better.     

Cognitive adaptation and women's adjustment to conjugal bereavement

Conjugal bereavement is experienced by the majority of older women in enduring relationships. Although most experience considerable distress in the immediate aftermath of this loss, the majority adjusts over the course of time. The current study of self-selected participants applies the theory of cognitive adaptation in an attempt to distinguish between women who have successfully adjusted to the death of their husbands versus those who exhibit prolonged distress. Results of this study suggest that positivity biases in personally relevant information processing (i.e., self-deception, marital aggrandizement, dispositional optimism) are significantly associated with life satisfaction and the absence of psychiatric distress. The contribution of cognitive adaptation is maintained over and above that provided by personality variables (i.e., neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience). Intervention strategies to treat enduring distress among widowed women are considered on the basis of these findings.     

Widowhood and Mortality: A Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression

The study of spousal bereavement and mortality has long been a major topic of interest for social scientists, but much remains unknown with respect to important moderating factors, such as age, follow-up duration, and geographic region. The present study examines these factors using meta-analysis. Keyword searches were conducted in multiple electronic databases, supplemented by extensive iterative hand searches. We extracted 1,377 mortality risk estimates from 123 publications, providing data on more than 500 million persons. Compared with married people, widowers had a mean hazard ratio (HR) of 1.23 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.19–1.28) among HRs adjusted for age and additional covariates and a high subjective quality score. The mean HR was higher for men (HR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.19–1.35) than for women (HR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.08–1.22). A significant interaction effect was found between gender and mean age, with HRs decreasing more rapidly for men than for women as age increased. Other significant predictors of HR magnitude included sample size, geographic region, level of statistical adjustment, and study quality.     

Caregiving and Care-Receiving:

Many aspects of aging are women's issues. Yet research on aging has, until recently, focussed little attention of gender differences in the experience of growing old. Older women are more likely than older men to be poor, widowed, living alone in poor health, receiving assistance from both formal and informal supports, as well as being institutionalized in long-term care facilities. This secondary analysis of data from the 1982 Survey of the Elderly in the Waterloo Region attempts to address a gap in our knowledge concerning gender differences in the giving and receiving of social support in later years. Gender differences in (1) need for social support, (2) turning to formal assistance, (3) amount of formal assistance used, and (4) amount of informal assistance received were examined using analysis of variance and logistic regression procedures. The profile of social support that emerged suggests both similarities and differences in the way elderly men and women experience the giving and receiving of social support. Older women in this sample were found to be disadvantaged in the areas of income, health, years lived alone, and loneliness, relative to older men. Low-income was related to formal service use for older women, but not for older     

Gender differences in psychosocial predictors of self-perceived health status in the elderly: Evidence from a Brazilian community study

ABSTRACT

This article aims to identify the psychosocial factors associated with self-perceived health status in the Brazilian elderly population and to present differences related to gender. The data were collected by questionnaire, including sociodemographic and behavioral questions, and scales for psychological dimensions. Self-perceived health status is related to level of education, physical activity, and self-efficacy in the total population. Regarding gender differences, self-rated health status among men is related to education level and self-efficacy and in women to level of education, physical activity, social support, and self-efficacy. These results can inform future health promotion interventions.     

Assessing the Efficacy of a Self-Help Support Group Program for Older Women

Social systems of support are considered crucial in providing a buffer against the negative consequences of aging. Given the significance, in particular, of natural helping networks for bolstering the personal lives of older persons, this paper reports on a study which assesses the efficacy and identifies the most likely beneficiaries of a formal self-help delivery model charged with reconstructing an older woman's social support system. Original data were collected from 225 older women (mean age = 76.1 years) participating in a large network of single gender, self-help groups in the Philadelphia metropolitan region. The average group was comprised of 13.5 members, met on a weekly basis, and had been operational 4.4 years. Multiple regression analysis identifies those variables serving as significant predictors of these women's comfort in sharing, group involvement, and social, intellectual, and emotional gain. Results lead to recommendations for promoting effective self-help programming for older women.     

Gender difference in physical performance, body composition and dietary intake in homebound elders

Considering that the most vulnerable subgroup of elders for poor nutritional status and functional decline is the increasing number of homebound women, we examined gender differences in physical performance, body composition, and dietary intake in a randomly recruited sample of 345 homebound elders (81% women, 48% black, > 65% income < $750/month). After controlling for demographic and health-related factors, the results from multivariate analyses indicated that women were more likely than men to report the lowest nutrient intake and were 2.9 times more likely to be at the worst level of overall physical performance. These results suggest a heightened vulnerability of homebound older women to poor physical performance, low dietary intake, and increased Body Mass Index (BMI). Prospective research is now needed to examine the interrelationships between physical performance, dietary intake, and body composition among the growing homebound older population.     

Gender differences in retirement decisions in Hong Kong

The study of labor force participation at older ages and the process of retirement do not have a long tradition in Asia's newly developed societies. This study, based on telephone survey of 950 respondents, examines various socio-economic factors that would influence retirement decision among older workers in Hong Kong. The findings show that older men were more likely to participate in the labor force than older women. Interestingly, older workers, in particular older women, with pension were less likely to retire. Having a working spouse decreased the likelihood of retirement and older workers, in particular older women, living with married children were more likely to retire. Poor health also discourages the propensity to continue working at old age. These findings confirm that retirement entails much more than just a decision to stop work, and that there were gender differences in retirement decision. Finally, several policy challenges, with reference to elderly women, concerning older workers' labor force participation were discussed.     

Cognitive Adaptation and Women's Adjustment to Conjugal Bereavement

ABSTRACT

Conjugal bereavement is experienced by the majority of older women in enduring relationships. Although most experience considerable distress in the immediate aftermath of this loss, the majority adjusts over the course of time. The current study of self-selected participants applies the theory of cognitive adaptation in an attempt to distinguish between women who have successfully adjusted to the death of their husbands versus those who exhibit prolonged distress. Results of this study suggest that positivity biases in personally relevant information processing (i.e., self-deception, marital aggrandizement, dispositional optimism) are significantly associated with life satisfaction and the absence of psychiatric distress. The contribution of cognitive adaptation is maintained over and above that provided by personality variables (i.e., neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience). Intervention strategies to treat enduring distress among widowed women are considered on the basis of these findings.     

A Gender Lens on Quality of Life: The Role of Sense of Community,Perceived Social Support,Self-Reported Health and Income

Quality of life (QoL) refers to a subjective evaluation that is embedded in a cultural, social and environmental context. It is a multidimensional concept and its assessment covers four domains: physical health, psychological health, social relationships, and environment. Although many studies report on QoL, literature rarely addressed the question of the QoL predictors from a gender perspective. Present study aimed at investigating gender differences in the determinants of QoL. Specifically, gender was considered as a moderator in the relationship between predictors of QoL (i.e. socio-demographic characteristics, perceived health, income, social support and sense of community) and each dimension of QoL. 654 Italian adults participated in the study. Results show that men outscore women on the physical, the psychological and the environmental domains of QoL. Considering determinants of QoL, sense of community and self-reported health operate in a similar fashion for both genders. On the contrary, social support is more predictive for women’s QoL, whereas the income level is more significant for men’s QoL. Implications are discussed.     

Gender differences in body esteem among older adults

Ninety-five adults aged 60-91 completed measures of Body-as-Object Esteem (BOE) (i.e., appearance) and Body-as-Process Esteem (BPE) (i.e., function) to explore gender differences in body esteem among older adults. As hypothesized, a significant age by gender interaction revealed that men become more disparaging of the appearance and function of their bodies in their last decades of life, while women do not. Level of physical disability was negatively correlated with BOE, particularly for disabled women. Furthermore, as is seen across the lifespan, self-esteem is a significant predictor of BOE. Disabled participants who were older than 74 years had disproportionately low BPE scores and similarly poor global self-esteem. Whether working with older adults or studying body esteem in this population, it is vital that both dimensions of body esteem are assessed along with the impact of disability status, gender, self-esteem, and age.     

Gender Differences in Physical Performance,Body Composition,and Dietary Intake in Homebound Elders

ABSTRACT

Considering that the most vulnerable subgroup of elders for poor nutritional status and functional decline is the increasing number of home-bound women, we examined gender differences in physical performance, body composition, and dietary intake in a randomly recruited sample of 345 home-bound elders (81% women, 48% black > 65% income < $750/month). After controlling for demographic and health-related factors, the results from multivariate analyses indicated that women were more likely than men to report the lowest nutrient intake and were 2.9 times more likely to be at the worst level of overall physical performance. These results suggest a heightened vulnerability of homebound older women to poor physical performance, low dietary intake, and increased Body Mass Index (BMI). Prospective research is now needed to examine the interrelationships between physical performance, dietary intake, and body composition among the growing homebound older population.     

Mortality following conjugal bereavement,Belgium 1991-96: The unexpected effect of education

This paper examines excess mortality following spousal bereavement by time since bereavement, sex, age, and education. The main hypothesis challenged is that higher education buffers the harmful effects of spousal loss. Using a log-rate model, death-rate ratios (widowed/married) are estimated for 49,849 and 126,746 Belgian widowers and widows and an equal number of non-bereaved controls matched to the bereaved on their socio-demographic characteristics. The hypothesis that the more educated suffer less excess mortality is not supported. Although higher educational levels are associated with lower mortality in general, they do not alleviate the effects of bereavement. On the contrary, in the period immediately following spousal loss, the more highly educated seem to have more, rather than less, excess mortality. Three possible arguments are suggested to account for this: education-related differences in the partner-relationship, structural differences in the availability of appropriate social support, and cultural differences in potential support networks.