Transport Policy Scenarios for the EU: 2020 Images of the Future

It is essential to take a longer term view if sustainable mobility is to become a reality. This paper takes a perspective to 2020 and constructs Images of the future which conform to the principles of sustainable mobility. Set at the EU level, clear environmental, regional development and efficiency targets are set, within which strategies are developed, based on different combinations of technological innovation and the decoupling of economic growth from transport growth. The external political situation is taken as given with either a move towards greater co-operation (and extension) or towards greater fragmentation (and regionalisaization) in Europe. The three Images of the future (2020) demonstrate that challenging targets for sustainable mobility can be achieved through a range of different policy actions within the transport sector and more widely. Immediate action is required and even more difficult choices will have to be made in the EU 15, if large-scale extension of the EU takes place. Improvements in vehicle technology alone will not achieve the targets. More fundamental changes have to take place in the way in which people make travel choices and in the means by which freight is transported. All of these measures must involve less travel, more efficient and cleaner travel modes.     

Self‐employment among people with disabilities: evidence for Europe

This paper examines the use of self‐employment among people with disabilities in Europe. Using data from the European Community Household Panel for the period 1995–2001 for 13 European countries we found that people with disabilities were more likely to be self‐employed than people without disabilities. Self‐employment provides flexibility and a better adjustment between disability status and working life. Moreover, the levels of satisfaction with job, type of job and working conditions of self‐employed disabled people are higher than those reported by disabled people who are wage and salary earners. Policy‐makers must encourage self‐employment to increase the levels of well‐being and employment of people with disabilities in Europe.     

Disabled People in a Newly Industrialising Economy: opportunities and challenges in Malaysia

Malaysia is one of the fastest developing countries in the world and by the year 2020 it will become an industrialised nation according to the Malaysian government's strategic plans. This dynamic situation poses numerous opportunities and challenges for disabled people in Malaysia. Two positive outcomes are opportunities in the employment sector as well as infrastructure developments. However, there are new challenges especially with regards to mainstreaming of educational and vocational training along with the need for a dynamic placement service. The rise in industrial accidents creates a new challenge, along with the changing demographic trends which could have a negative impact on disabled people. What is striking is that disabled people and their organisations are beginning to articulate these changes and making a claim for inclusion in Malaysian society.     

Disability in Uzbekistan: when will the social model of disability arrive?

The topic of this article is the analysis of statistical data of the disability situation in Uzbekistan. The number of new registered people has been decreasing since 2000. On one hand the Government accepts various state programmes on population health care improving and the integration of disabled people into the society. On the other hand, authorities begin restrictive policy concerning disabled people. In the conditions of low living standards state pension has a vital importance for disabled people. Therefore, a number of those who can have it are falling.     

Human capital, social capital, entrepreneurship and disability: an examination of some current educational trends in the UK

Influenced by European policy, human capital and social capital are currently of interest in UK education policy and practice, expressed particularly in the concepts of lifelong learning and entrepreneurship. Human capital and social capital ideas are shown to be flawed by not taking disability into account. The characteristics of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education are examined for relevance to young people with disabilities or learning difficulties and it is concluded that more could be done to develop opportunities for entrepreneurship. The position of people when work is not an option is considered, leading to the question of whether there is a 'disability industry', and an acknowledgement of the importance to the economy of disabled people as consumers and producers. A wider definition of entrepreneurship, which includes people with disabilities and learning difficulties, is sought and the paper concludes by discussing the wider implications for the learning community.     

The European Community and Disability Discrimination: Time to address the deficit of powers?

Disabled citizens are overlooked and ignored in the Treaty on European Union and as a result the European Community has limited competences to address disability related issues, and specifically disability discrimination. This article argues that this situation needs to be remedied at the present Inter Governmental Conference, which is being held to review the Treaty. There are sound justifications, based on political, economic and social grounds, for extending the competences of the Community in this way. Disability discrimination results in many disabled citizens being unable to fully exercise the rights conferred on them by Community law, such as the right to free movement and the right to vote: furthermore, European economies are suffering as disability discrimination artificially restricts the contribution which disabled citizens could make as both consumers and workers; and, lastly disability discrimination is leading to poverty and social exclusion throughout the European Union today.     

Does Europe need immigrants? Population and work force projections

European countries defined as all Northern and Western Europe including the former East Germany had a population of 498.4 million in 1990. In 1990 Western Europe had 374.4 million people. The European Community (EC) makes u 92% of the total population. Projections forecast a peak of the EC population (excluding the former East Germany) in 2005 at 334.2 million compared with 327 million in 1989, then declining to 332.5 million in 2010, 329.0 million min 2015 and 324.5 million in 2020. In Europe outside the East, the 20-24 year old work force entrance age group will drop from 29,860,000 in 1990 to 26,400,000 in 1005 and 23,480,000 in 2000: decreasing by 6,380,000 or 21.3%. Fertility rose by 22% in Sweden between 1985 and 1990, the rise of negligible in France and Belgium, but 2% in the UK and Switzerland, 4% in the Netherlands, 13% in Norway, 16% in Denmark, and even 6% in Germany and Luxembourg. The Ec labor force was 145 million in 1990 (excluding East Germany); it is projected to peak at 146.9 million in 2000, decline slowly until 2010 and decline faster up to 2025 with the steepest decline occurring in Germany and Italy. Unemployment rates would change from the 1990 estimate of 15.7 million to 15.5 million in 1995. Net migration into the 12 EC countries was on average -4,800 from 1965 to 1969; 357,000 from 1970 to 1974; 164,400 from 1980 to 1984; and 533,000/year from 1985 to 1989 as a result of the rise of asylum applicants and migration of ethnic Germans into Germany. Increased immigration is not needed to satisfy work force shortages for the next 10-20 years in Western Europe or in the EC. Other issues addressed are the economic activity forecast, the hidden labor supply, skill shortages, Eastern Europe, and teenage shortage. High-level manpower movements, immigration of asylum seekers, and illegal immigration will continue, but in the long run the conditions of employment and welfare support have to be improved for the women of Europe.     

Disability in Adulthood: Ten-year Follow-up of Young People with Disabilities

This study investigates the attainment of adult status among a sample of 39 physically impaired people aged 25 to 30 years. Compared with the general population, they were much less likely to have worked in paid employment, to have established independent households, or to be married and have families of their own. Few had achieved their teenage aspirations for marriage or parenthood. Most of those who had never had a job since leaving school still wanted to work. The majority still hoped to live in a place of their own. The findings point to major inadequacies in provision for disabled people, particularly in practical and financial support for those who want to work and live independently. Policies and services for young disabled people need to be developed within a common framework which includes a comprehensive definition of the transition to adulthood and agreed goals for the achievement of adult status.     

失能老年人长期护理的需求规模评估、费用测算与经济效应预测

伴随着失能风险的增加,老年人长期护理问题成为人口老龄化研究的新课题.基于CHARLS等相关数据,改进Markov模型,测算2020—2060年失能老年人长期护理需求规模及费用,并预测经济效应,结果表明:(1)老年人数量呈倒"U"形增长趋势,并于2048年左右达到顶峰,约为4.34亿人;失能老年人呈逐年上升趋势,于2060年达到1.84亿人.(2)失能老年人长期护理费用由2020年的3906.57亿元增长到2060年的44973.16亿元,增长11.51倍,其中轻度、中度和重度失能老年人长期护理费用分别增长8.92倍、15.55倍和21.17倍.(3)老年护理劳动力需求量预测显示,由90.33万人上升到228.98万人,增长2.54倍;机构养老护理型床位需求量预测显示,由241.03万张增长到553.11万张,增长2.29倍;老年护理市场直接经济增量预测显示,由3906.57亿元增长到44973.16亿元,增长11.51倍.基于此,本文提出包括坚持"以制度为基础、以服务为核心、以救助为兜底、以法律为准绳"的基本原则,建立失能动态监控机制,完善养老服务财政补贴制度等政策建议.     

The Dialectics of Multiple Identities and the Disabled People's Movement

This paper explores the issue of commonality and difference in the disabled people's movement in relation to ethnicity, gender sexuality, age and class. Hitherto, disability academics have either ignored or tagged on the experience of disabled black and minority ethnic people, women, older people, and gay men and lesbians. When they are discussed, they have more often than not been discussed separately - for example, disabled black people's experience has always been discussed separately, disabled women, disabled gay men and lesbians and disabled older women. Hence it is not surprising if 'simultaneous oppression' is perceived to be the unique experience of a minority of disabled people. Here, I suggest that it is, in fact, the experience of a majority of disabled people since the majority is not a homogenous mass of disabled white heterosexual middle-class young men, but individuals from diverse backgrounds with a wide range of identities and experiences, and to accept that their only concern is disability is to fall into the same trap as the general population most of whom only see the impairment and not the person. It is imperative to note, however, that the blame does not lie with the social model of disability, as it is sometimes assumed, for that is merely a conceptual tool. The paper discusses the concept 'simultaneous oppression' as applied to the experience of black women and later disabled black people. It is suggested that this is too simplistic an analysis to capture the day to day experience of those who possess negatively labelled multiple identities. An alternative framework is suggested to link the experience of different groups of disabled people and, hence, offer a common ground for unity in the disabled people's movement.     

Aversive disablism: subtle prejudice toward disabled people

Blatant forms of prejudice towards disabled people appear to be disappearing in the UK. However, subtle forms of prejudice remain and may be highly damaging to the achievement of the vision of disabled people being 'respected and included as equal members of society'. In order to assist placing subtle forms of prejudice within a framework, the term aversive disablism is introduced, developed from aversive racism theory and building on Miller, Parker and Gillinson's definition of disablism: 'discriminatory, oppressive or abusive behaviour arising from the belief that disabled people are inferior to others'. Aversive disablists recognize disablism is bad but do not recognize that they themselves are prejudiced. Likewise, aversive disablism, like aversive racism, is often unintentional.     

Globalising accessibility: drawing on the experiences of developed countries to enable the participation of disabled people in Zambia

This paper explores the accessibility situation in a developing country such as Zambia. The global view of accessibility for disabled people is provided to examine the accessibility situation in developed and developing countries, highlighting the role of the environment in achieving rights for disabled people. Recognition of disability rights relating to accessible built environments is a necessary element to ensure their participation. Limited disability research, lack of disability policies and systems, evaluation of disability rights and support from developed countries have been cited as contributing to the non-recognition of disability rights and low participation by disabled people in Africa. An international perspective of disability, accessibility and participation and the experiences of developed countries are examined and their potential for advancing accessible built environments for participation in developing countries considered. However, accessibility concepts, having been developed in western countries, are presented with caution acknowledging the geographical, social–cultural and economic differences that exist.     

Disabled people, the reserve army of labour and welfare reform

This paper is concerned with explaining why in contemporary society there has been a number of changes to income maintenance and labour market policy for disabled people. Taking a regulation approach theoretical framework it engages with the debate about whether disabled people can be considered to be part of the reserve army of labour. Rejecting previous broad-brush approaches that seem to suggest that all disabled people are part of the reserve army, it argues that the policy changes have been aimed at reconstructing non-employed disabled people as an important part of the reserve army in a period when labour markets are becoming tighter. In this sense disabled people are crucial to New Labour's regulation of neo-liberal accumulation that is structured through a contradiction between economic stability and increasing participation in paid employment.     

Defining the severely mentally disabled

A definition of the "known target population of severely mentally disabled" in community mental health centers is examined. Criteria include intensive treatment contact and persistent, severe disability, but not diagnosis. Feasible and reliable screening procedures are demonstrated. In the identified population, most subjects at some time had received a diagnosis of schizophrenia and had been on public assistance. These criteria apply to catchmented treatment systems and should be useful in services research.     

Trends in current east‐west migration and the need for new policies

This article highlights the evolution of East‐West movements of people since the revolutionary changes in the late 1980s. It then suggests an eight‐point pan‐European cooperation programme with a view to avoiding a situation in which a surge in East‐ West movements becomes a destabilizing political factor in Europe.     

A review of the participation of disabled persons in the labour force: the Kenyan context

This paper presents a review of the challenges that disabled people experience in participating in the Kenyan labour market. It draws on existing literature and on a narrative of the experiences of one disabled academic in a Kenyan university to highlight some of the forms of discrimination that disabled people have to cope with in their workplaces. The goal is to further our understanding of the nature of barriers that disabled people face in the work environment in Kenya, with a view of exploring ways of addressing those barriers and developing some recommendations for improvement. It is clear from the interview with a disabled academic that, despite strides made by the Kenyan government in terms of enacting the Disability Act, which aims at boosting disabled people’s participation in employment, there is still a big gap between the law and its implementation. What is needed is constitutional change and implementation of the existing law at all levels, as well as provision of resources to support this change.     

Ergonomics and the inclusion of disabled people in the Brazilian job market

The inclusion of persons with disabilities (PD) has been widely discussed in Brazil. The main purpose of this paper is to identify the contributions of ergonomics in the process of including disabled people in the job market and to discuss the situation in Brazil. It was found that ergonomics is an important tool within organizations. Using it allows space, work stations and tools to be matched workers' needs, including those with disabilities, on behalf of whom it is necessary to adjust the demands of work to their specific needs. However, further research is needed in Brazil on the existing methods of ergonomic intervention for this population in order to suit their needs and optimize potential.     

Towards an agenda for disability research in Europe: learning from disabled people’s organisations

This paper addresses the challenges of building capacity for collaborative participatory research with disabled people’s organisations in European countries. The paper presents initial findings from the project ‘European Research Agendas for Disability Equality’ (EuRADE), which seeks to build the capacity of civil society organisations to participate in future research collaborations in partnership with academic institutions. The findings draw on survey data identifying the research capacity, needs and priorities of 68 organisations in 25 countries and focuses, in particular, on responses from national or European level representative organisations of disabled people. The findings demonstrate a high degree of motivation and readiness for collaboration in academic research but raise concerns about the readiness of academic institutions to engage disabled people as equal partners within social model and rights‐based approaches. Respondent organisations identified a wide range of research needs that raise challenges for collaborative responses from the academic community. In this way, the findings provide a basis for developing user‐led agendas for European funded research within the emancipatory paradigm, and indentify important opportunities for new international research collaborations between activists and academics.     

Kulturelle Muster des Altersübergangs: Der Einfluss kultureller Normen und Werte auf die Erwerbsbeteiligung älterer Menschen in Europa

The article examines the impact of culturally influenced norms and cultural values towards the ideal arrangement due to the transition to retirement on the labor market participation of older people aged 55 to 64 in Europe. Subsequent to a basic definition of retirement cultures, an extended explanatory model for the transition to retirement is developed, which takes cultural norms and values or rather the country-specific-retirement culture explicitly into account. Secondly, the model is empirically validated. The underlying dataset is the third round of the European Social Survey (ESS) which was conducted in 2006. Overall it is found that the impact of societal norms and values on the participation decision of older individuals can be both, theoretically modeled and empirically verified. Within the explanatory model the importance of cultural norms and values for explaining the retirement decisions of older people is twofold. Firstly, like the nation-specific institutional framework of the transition to retirement as well as the material resources of the individuals, this specific transition-to-retirement-culture belongs to the conditional part of the model and limits the number of alternative courses of action. Secondly, as an internalized social norm, the transition-to-retirement-culture is an integral part of the definition of the situation and structures the preference order of the individuals. The theoretical influence can also be validated in the empirical model. Firstly, there is a highly significant (positive) correlation between the attitudes towards the ideal retirement transition on the one hand and the participation decision on the individual level. On the societal level, a significant correlation between the country-specific transition-to-retirement-culture and the employment rate of older people can be seen. In this context, a low labor market participation of older people goes along with a comparatively exit-oriented transition-to-retirement-culture and vice versa.     

Transitions to part-time work at older ages: the case of people with disabilities in Europe

This paper analyses the labour-force transitions of older workers with disabilities in general, particularly workers’ transitions to and from part-time employment within a European context. Using the two first waves (2004 and 2007) of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, we compare transitions between employment statuses for disabled and non-disabled individuals, even after controlling for different disability trajectories. In addition, we employ a multivariate framework to examine the determinants for remaining in part-time work in 2007 for those individuals who were part-timers in 2004. The results show that older people with long-term disabilities have a higher probability of staying in a part-time job than their compared counterparts. Policy-makers must promote part-time employment as a means of increasing employment opportunities for older workers with disabilities and support gradual retirement opportunities with flexible and reduced working hours.