The allocation of time to grocery shopping: A comparison of Canadian and U.S. households

This study examines grocery shopping time and incorporates some of the advances made in the estimation of time use, including enjoyment of time spent in an activity, the endogeneity of grocery prices, and simultaneity of time and expenditures. Three groups of consumers are compared: Anglophone and Francophone Canadians and U.S. households. Results indicate that the model explains more of the variation in time use for Anglophone Canadians and U.S. households than for Francophone Canadians.She currently conducts research in the areas of consumer behavior and economic outcomes associated with drug use and life course implications of retirement. She received her Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1988.Her research interests are food distribution, retailing, consumer behavior, consumer satisfaction and arts management. She received her Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1991.     

Predictors of out-of-pocket medical expenditures in low-income households

From a sample of low-income households, out-of-pocket medical expenses are found to average about $25 per month. For each household, these expenses vary with annual income, type of insurance for medical care, priority of medical expenses, ethnicity, and number of ill family members. Expenses are reported for households with different socioeconomic characteristics and composition. Multiparticipation in insurance programs is shown. Fourteen percent of the survey participants say they have no insurance, public or private. Thirty-three percent participate in Medicaid.Flora L. Williams is an Associate Professor in Consumer Sciences and Retailing at Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907. She received her Ph.D. from Purdue University and includes family economic well-being, and financial problems and expenditures among her research interests.Amy Hagler received her M.S. from Purdue University in Consumer Sciences and Retailing.Mary Pritchard is an Associate Professor in the Department of Human and Family Resources at Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115-2854. Her Ph.D. was earned at Purdue and her areas of research focus on family economic well-being and economic socialization of adolescents.Marshall A. Martin is a Professor of Agricultural Economics at Purdue University. His research addresses agriculture and food policy, and economic assessment of emerging agricultural technology.William C. Bailey is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at the University of Indianapolis, 1400 E. Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN, 46227-3697. He received his Ph.D. from Texas Tech University and focuses his research on economic psychology and health care cost.     

Female-headed households in nonmetropolitan areas: Housing and demographic characteristics

This article describes selected demographic and housing characteristics of nonmetropolitan female-headed households. It compares nonmetropolitan female householders with the average U.S. household, including regional differences. Female heads are older and more likely to have members in poor health than U.S. households on average. Female heads are also more likely to be in poverty and to experience housing poverty. Although the female householders do not suffer from space and quality problems, housing affordability is a problem. Most female heads live in owned, single-family dwellings and are more likely to live in mobile homes than the average U.S. household. This research was funded under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative State Research Service, and the experiment stations in Idaho, Indiana (Purdue University), Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, and New York (Cornell University). Also supporting the research were East Carolina University, Illinois State University, Kansas State University, and Western Michigan University. The authors thank Mary Ann Horvath and Roxanne Miller for their assistance in preparing the figures and document. She received her Ph.D. from Oklahoma State University. Her work includes research in housing and the economic well-being of women. She received her Ph.D. from The Ohio State University. Her research interests include housing and neighborhood assessment and women and public policy issues.     

The effect of homemaker's employment status on children's time allocation in single- and two-parent families

This study compares the effect of homemaker's employment status on children's time allocation in single- and two-parent families. Specifically under investigation is the effect of living in a family in which the mother is employed professionally, employed non-professionally, or not employed outside the home on older child's time allocated to household work, school work, and recreation in single- and two-parent families. Age and sex of older children and constraints on their time, such as school attendance, are controlled for in the analysis. The data are from a California study. A two-step multiple regression procedure is used. The effect of homemaker's employment status on older child's time allocated to household work, school work, and recreation is not found to differ by family structure. Homemaker's employment status does not explain a significant amount of variance in older child's time allocation.Rosemary J. Key is Assistant Professor, Department of Consumer Economics and Housing, Cornell University, 103 Martha Van Rensselaer Hall, Ithaca, New York 14850. Her research interests include substitutability between family members' time in household production, and sequencing techniques used in household production activities. She received her Ph.D. from The Ohio State University.Margaret Mietus Sanik is Associate Professor, Department of Family Resource Management, The Ohio State University, 1787 Neil Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210. Her research interests include time use among family members and household production. She received her Ph.D. from Cornell University.     

The relation of economic factors to perceived stress in mobile families

The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between objective and subjective measures of economic well-being, amount of and satisfaction with control, and perceived stress level of subjects, who have relocated with their families within the past year. Both males and females indicate more stress if their financial condition is worse following the move than before, if their employment status is not satisfying, and when they have little control over their lives and are not satisfied with their level of control. Stress is negatively related to satisfaction with the specific aspects of economic situation studied for both males and females with limited exception.Peggy S. Berger received her Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University. She is an Associate Professor in the Department of Consumer Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523. Her research interests include socioeconomic issues related to geographic mobility and to gender, and work and family issues.Judith Powell received her Ph.D. from Oklahoma State University. She is a Professor of Child and Family Studies, and Head of the Department of Home Economics, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071. Her research interests include parent-child relations and effects of relocation on families.Alicia Skinner Cook received her Ph.D. from Arizona State University. She is a Professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523. Her research interests include grief and loss issues, family stress, and adjustment to relocation.     

Family policy and critical science research: Facilitating change

The principles of critical science for policy research are outlined and one research project is used as a case study. The study was intentionally designed to facilitate changes that would positively influence the economic well-being of children from divorced families. The project uses the critical science processes of public dialogue about child support guidelines for purposes of collaborative problem solving. The normative theories of procedural and distributive justice are used to guide the research reporting. The project contributes to changes in the practices of estimating the income needs of children, changes in estimating the relative monetary contributions of their parents, and proposed legislation and modifications in the state child support guidelines. She received her Ph.D. in family ecology from Michigan State University. Her research interests include the valuing issues of family life quality, family decision making, divorce,and the economic adjustments of families to economic stressors. She received her M.A. degree in Family Education from the University of Minnesota. Her research interests include decision making and parenting. She received her Ph.D. degree in anthropology from the University of Minnesota. Her research interests include social and cultural change and the integration of research findings into public policy decision making.     

Time-management strategies used by households with home-based work

A sample of 899 households in which at least one member is engaged in home-based work is used to analyze two time-management strategies used to respond to the demands of home-based work. Analyses reveal that, first, personal time is reallocated more than additional help is obtained for either the home-based work or household production and, second, that different strategies are used depending on whether the household manager is also the home-based worker. Respondents holding both roles report reallocating personal time more often than respondents who are not home-based workers; the reverse holds for obtaining additional help. The results suggest that households generating higher incomes in which home-based work is a full-time occupation are more likely to use time-management strategies than those in which incomes are lower and the home-based work is part-time.Journal Paper Number J-14861 Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Project Number 2857. This article reports results from the Cooperative Regional Research Project, NE-167, entitled, At-Home Income Generation: Impact on Management, Productivity and Stability in Rural and Urban Families, partially supported by the Cooperative States Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the Experiment Stations at the University of Hawaii, Iowa State University, Lincoln University (Missouri), Michigan State University, Cornell University (New York), The Ohio State University, The Pennsylvania State University, Utah State University, and the University of Vermont. This article was accepted in 1992 under the editorship of Charles B. Hennon.Her current research work includes an analysis of family resource management in Mexico and of housing conditions in rural areas. She is also involved in the study of household members who work at home for pay and their associated management practices and coping strategies. She received her Ph.D. from The Pennsylvania State University in 1970.She received her M.S. from Iowa State University in May 1992. This paper is based on her M.S. thesis.Her current research interests include household asset and debt formation, working families and employers' benefits, and home-based employment. She received her Ph.D. from Purdue University in 1978.Her current research work includes such topics as divorce settlements, at-home income generation, and management practices of households engaged in home-based employment. Her Ph.D. degree was received from Cornell University in 1978.     

Perceived risk associated with apparel purchasing in discount stores

Consumer discount store patronage preferences for apparel are investigated using the concept of perceived risk. Apparel items are assigned a type and level of risk: low social, low economic; high social, low economic; and high social, high economic. Females (N=222) responding to a mail survey rate their willingness to purchase each item in a discount store on a scale ofprefer to buy, may buy, ornever buy. Results suggest that consumer preference for purchasing in discount stores declines more sharply when economic risk increases than when social risk increases.Teresa A. Summers is Associate Professor of the School of Human Ecology, Textiles, Apparel Design and Merchandising at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. She received her Ph.D. from Texas Woman's University. Her research interest includes rural/urban consumer responses to changes in the marketplace.Frances C. Lawrence is Professor of the School of Human Ecology, Family, Child, and Consumer Sciences at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. She received her Ph.D. from Florida State University. Her research interests include family financial decision-making and family time use.Janice L. Haynes is Assistant Professor of the School of Human Ecology, Textiles, Apparel Design and Merchandising at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. She received her Ph.D. from Texas Woman's University. Her research interest includes retail patronage of specialized consumer market segments.Patricia J. Wozniak is Associate Professor of the Department of Experimental Statistics at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Her research interests include survey methodology and rural families.     

Use of time and preferences for time allocation among urban,employed, married women

This study examines the relationship between employed wives' preferences for household production time, employment time, leisure, and their actual time use. A random sample of 235 employed, married women estimate their time use on an average weekday and weekend day in 13 activities and indicate their preferences for time in those activities. Hierarchical multiple regression procedures are used to examine the relationships between actual and preferred time use. Weekday employment time is not related to preferences for more or less time in household production but wives allocating more time to employment want to spend less time at that employment and more time in leisure. Weekend employment time is related to preferences for more time in leisure, child care, and other household work. Time spent performing household work is not related to preferences for more or less time in any activity except the desire for more leisure time on weekends.Ann Renigar Hiatt is Assistant Professor in the Department of Human Services, College of Education and Allied Professions at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223. Her research interests include employed women's time allocation, time pressures, and use of time management strategies. She received her Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.Deborah D. Godwin is Associate Professor in the Department of Housing and Consumer Economics at the University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Her research has focused on husbands' and wives' time allocation to household production, the effects of women's employment on family economic functioning, and family financial management. She received her Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Greensbore.     

Financial management: Development of scales

This study is a contribution to the development of family resource management scales, specifically financial management scales. Principal axis factor analysis, with varimax rotation, is used to assess underlying relationships in 23 family resource management variables related to time and money resources. Reliability and content, construct, and criterion-related validity of the scales are assessed. Two scales that are reliable and have some degree of validity are developed: frequency of financial problems and frequency of financial management. The scales could be used in future research, teaching, or counseling to organize financial management concepts.Preparation of this research was supported in part by the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. Data were collected in conjunction with the cooperative regional research project NC-182, Family Resource Utilization as a Factor in Determining Economic Well-Being of Rural Families. Cooperating states are Arizona, California, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, and Minnesota.She received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois; her current research interests include gender roles, family financial management, and economic well-being.Her current research interests include family financial management and consumer bankruptcy. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Missouri.Her current research interests include the economic well-being of various family forms. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois.She received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. Her research interests are economic well-being and quality of life.     

The consumer expenditures of elderly women: Racial,marital, and rural/urban impacts

This research, using data from the interview component of the 1990 Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES), examines the main and interaction effects of race, marital status, and residence on the economic well-being of women 65 years or older (N=3,205). Economic well-being is measured by total annualized expenditures of the household for goods and services. The first hypothesis is supported: race, marital status, and urban or rural residence each has a major effect on the economic well-being of older women after adjusting for the effects of age and household size. The characteristics of nonwhite, nonmarried, and rural are associated with lower economic well-being. The second hypothesis is not supported: race, marital status, and residence do not interact to produce differences in the economic well-being of older women. Both hypotheses are examined by analysis of covariance. The results show the economic diversity of older women and the persistent effects of race, marital status, and rural or urban residence on the economic well-being of older women regardless of age and household size. This research was conducted at the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (Family Economics Research Group), Hyattsville, MD, July 1992, where Dr. Kivett was a Visiting Scientist at the time. Appreciation is expressed to the staff of the Family Economics Research Group for their technical assistance at all stages of the research. and 1992 Visiting Professor at the Family Economics Research Group, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Her current research interests include the family supports and relationships of older retired migrants. She received her Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her current research interests include the economic status of elderly American households. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Maryland.     

Home-based employment: Historical and current considerations

The purposes of this article are threefold. First, there is a brief review of current and historical research on home-based business with special emphasis on female home-based employment and the impact of such employment on family life. Second, a conceptual model for family work activities is advanced. Finally, concepts related to home-based employment that could be used to frame and describe the empirical study are specified.This article reports results from the Cooperative Regional Research Project, NE-167, entitled At-Home Income Generation: Impact on Management, Productivity and Stability in Rural/Urban Families, partially supported by the Cooperative States Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture and the Experiment Stations at the University of Hawaii, Iowa State University, Lincoln University (Missouri), Michigan State University, Cornell University (New York), The Ohio State University, The Pennsylvania State University, Utah State University, and the University of Vermont.Her research interests include measuring household production, at-home income generation, and rural families. She received her Ph.D. in Family and Consumer Economics from the University of Missouri-Columbia.Her research interests include home-based business and consumer behavior. She received her Ph.D from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.Her research interests include consumer behavior and family economic issues. She received her Ph.D. from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.     

Perceived stress among nonmetropolitan Utah residents

This article examines relationships between perceived stress and variables such as life events, differential economic satisfaction, health problems, and sociodemographic characteristics among respondents in three nonmetropolitan areas in Utah. The three most predictive factors related to perceived stress are economic satisfaction, life events experienced, and religion. The analysis shows an inverse partial relationship between perceived stress scores and economic satisfaction, and a positive partial relationship between the number of life events and perceived stress. Non-Mormons report higher levels of stress than Mormons. A positive but weak relationship is observed between stress and household size. Weak inverse relationships are observed between stress and a measure of household unemployment, income, and respondent's sex.Richard S. Krannich received his Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University. He is an Associate Professor of Sociology, and Director of the Institute for Social Science Research on Natural Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT84322-0730. His research interests include rural development processes, community change, and social responses to natural resource developments.Pamela J. Riley received her Ph.D. from Washington State University. She is currently an Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-0730. Research interests include rural family stress, the impacts of tourism on developing countries, and social aspects of on-farm water management.Ann Leffler is an Associate Professor of Sociology and Director of the Liberal Arts and Sciences Program, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-0730. Research interests include nonmetropolitan family stress. She received her Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley.     

Women's perceived stress and well-being following voluntary and involuntary relocation

This study investigated the relationship between voluntary and involuntary relocation and women's perceptions of stress and amount of control, as well as their satisfaction with personal well-being. Results indicated that involuntary movers felt significantly less control and had lower levels of satisfaction with the relationship with their spouses than did voluntary movers. Educational level and employment status were also explored in relation to the dependent variables. Women with high school/trade school education had significantly higher levels of perceived stress, feelings of less control, and lower levels of satisfaction with family life than women with more education.This paper was supported by the Colorado State University and University of Wyoming Experiment Stations and published as Scientific Series Paper No. 290.Paula P. Makowsky received her M.S. from Colorado State University. She is currently a Counselor, Catholic Social Services, Phoenix, AZ.Alicia Skinner Cook is a Professor, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO 80523. Her research interests include grief and loss issues related to relocation. She received her Ph.D. from Arizona State University.Peggy S. Berger received her Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University. She is an Associate Professor, Department of Consumer Science & Housing, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO 80523. Her research interests include socioeconomic issues related to geographic mobility and to gender.Judith Powell received her Ed.D. from Oklahoma State University. She is a Professor, Child & Family Studies, and Head, Department of Home Economics, Division of Home Economics, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071. Her research interests include parent-child relations and effects of relocation on families.     

Effects of relative advantage on time use in farm families

An assumption of comparative advantage (CA) is that all members in efficient households specialize in market or household work. The CA for Oregon farm households was measured by differences between husbands and wives in wages and schooling for nonfarm work, and in farm decision-making responsibility and years lived on a farm for farm work. The spouse with the advantage is assumed to spend more time in that work sector and less time in household work than his (her) spouse. The hypothesis is supported for market work. For farm decision making, results are consistent with the hypothesis but not significant. Years lived on a farm is consistent for husbands, but wives who have the CA do significantly less farm work than wives of men who hold the CA. Experience may not be a good measure of CA, or perhaps farm work provides process satisfaction to farm men (and their wives) who work longer hours.She directs the Family Resource Management Graduate Program. Her research interests center on concepts and measures of management, household work, and well-being in the United States and across cultures.His current research interests include family saving and investing behavior. He received his Ph.D. from Oregon State University in 1992. This research was funded by the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.     

Factors associated with expectation of household's future financial condition

Path analysis is used to examine the causal relationships among selected objective and subjective factors associated with a household's expectation of future financial condition. Results indicate that respondents who perceive the effect of changes in the external environment on their own household's financial condition as positive are younger, have higher net worth, perceive more internal control over their situation, and report that most of the changes in the external environment are positive. Respondents who are younger, have higher income, perceive more internal control over their situation, and believe the effect of changes in the external environment on their household's financial condition are positive are more likely to be optimistic about their financial future. It is important that educators and financial advisors recognize the significant role perception of being in control plays in determining expectations of future financial condition.Journal Paper No. J-15256 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Project No. 2809. Data were collected in conjunction with the cooperative regional research project NC-182, Family Resource Utilization as a Factor in Determining Economic Well-Being of Rural Families. Cooperating states are Arizona, California, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, and Minnesota.Her current research interests include family financial management and consumer bankruptcy; she received her Ph.D. from the University of Missouri.She received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois; her current research interests include gender roles, family financial management, and economic well-being.She received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. Her research interests are economic well-being and quality of life.Her current research interests include the economic well-being of various family forms. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois.     

The effects of perceived locus of control and perceived income adequacy on satisfaction with financial status of rural households

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships among selected socioeconomic variables — perceived locus of control, perceived income adequacy, and satisfaction with financial status. Results of the study indicate that age, household income, household net worth, perceived locus of control, and perceived income adequacy are significantly related to satisfaction with financial status. Household income and household net worth have indirect effects on satisfaction through perceived locus of control and perceived income adequacy. Perceived locus of control also has an indirect effect on satisfaction through perceived income adequacy. These findings suggest that counselors and educators should emphasize the importance of perceptions of income adequacy and control over financial aspect in their courses and programs.Journal Paper No. J-14499 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 2809.His research interests include consumer credit and family resource management. He received his Ph.D. from Iowa State University in 1993.Her research interests include family financial management and consumer bankruptcy. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Missouri.     

The utilization of child care by households engaged in home-based employment

A logit procedure is used to examine the factors associated with the likelihood of using child care services among a sample of households with both a home-based worker and a child designated as needing care. Being a single-parent, having high family income, and the presence of a two-year old child are positively associated with the likelihood of using child care. Being an older worker, having a child who is one year or less or children who are 11 to 12 years, and having a less professional occupation decreases the likelihood of using child care. Self-employment decreases the likelihood of usage; owning a business that hires employees or services increases the likelihood of usage. The major conclusion is that home-based work may be a coping strategy for some child care needs, but home-based working households often need and use child care.This article reports results from the Cooperative Regional Research Project, NE-167, entitled, At-Home Income Generation: Impact on Management, Productivity and Stability in Rural/Urban Families, partially supported by the Cooperative States Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture and the Experiment Stations at the University of Hawaii, Iowa State University, Lincoln University (Missouri), Michigan State University, Cornell University (New York), The Ohio State University, The Pennsylvania State University, Utah State University, and the University of Vermont. Authors are listed in descending order of their contributions to this research paper. Appreciation is expressed to Frank Chiang for the computer assistance needed to complete these analyses. Patsy Sellen was instrumental in formatting and stylizing this article to required guidelines.Her current research interests include household asset and debt formation, working families and employers' benefits, and home-based employment. She received her Ph.D. from Purdue University in 1978.Nancy C. Saltford, has recently been a Visiting Scholar at the Employee Benefit Research Institute, a public policy research organization in Washington D.C. where she specialized in employer policies for working families. Her Ph.D. was received from Purdue University in 1971.Her research interests include the economics of divorce and at-home income generation. She received her Ph.D. from Oregon State University in 1986.Her primary areas of research are rural families, household production, family time use and its meaning, and the interactive aspects of managerial, productive and affective functions of families. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Missouri-Columbia in 1983.     

Using psychometric analysis to evaluate the construct validity and reliability of the Coping Response Indices

The Coping Response Indices developed by Billings and Moos (1984a) are frequently used in stress research in the social science and clinical fields. These indices were originally developed in a clinical setting using a conceptual process rather than psychometric methods. This study investigates the factorial structure of the Coping Response Indices scale using a nonclinical sample. Principal components analysis with varimax rotation yields three distinct dimensions within the scale. Considerable support is found for the conceptualization of the Coping Response Indices, as proposed by Billings and Moos. There is also some indication, however, that the conceptualization and measurement of the indices need further revision and testing, especially if they are to be used in social science research. Her research interests include economic strain, stress and coping, and child functioning in diverse family structures. She received her Ph.D. from Oregon State University. Her research focuses on vulnerable children and families, life-span caregiving issues, intergenerational relations, and prevention of child abuse and neglect. She received her Ph.D. from Oregon State University. Her research focuses on family resource management, work, stress, and families, and multiple role management. She received her Ed.D. from Utah State University.     

Time use satisfaction of wives: Home,farm, and labor force workload

Factors related to time spent in work roles are investigated for a sample of 685 wives living on family farms in seven southern and midwestern states. Data were collected in a comprehensive mail survey. Results show that variables reflecting management are the most important predictors of wife's time use satisfaction. Wife's satisfaction is also significantly related to her education and nonfarm employment. Conclusions indicate that, although wives on family farms experience work-role overload relative to their husbands, they are satisfied with their time contributions to the home/farm situation.Jeanne L. Hafstrom is Associate Professor, Consumer Sciences Division, University of Illinois, 161 Bevier Hall, 905 So. Goodwin, Urbana, IL 61801. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. Her current research interests include economic well-being and the quality of life.MaryAnn Paynter is Assistant Professor and Family Economics Extension Specialist, Consumer Sciences Division, University of Illinois, 547 Bevier Hall, 905 So. Goodwin, Urbana, IL 61801. She received her Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University. Her current research interests include family resource management strategies.This study was part of S-191 Regional Research Project Farm Wife's External Employment, Family Economic Productivity and Family Functioning, and Project No. 60-0366 supported by the Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.