Styles of Managerial Creativity: A Comparison of Adaption-Innovation in the United Kingdom,Australia and the Unites States1

Kirton has proposed that creative styles form a continuum from the most adaptive (implying a preference for solving problems through incremental improvement with the system) to the most innovative (preference for restructuring the system in order to solve the problem). This dimension of creative style has traditionally been measured by the Kirton adaption-innovation inventory (KAI), a 32-item measure that contains three factors: sufficiency vs. proliferation of originality, efficiency and rule-conformity. Studies of mid-career MBA students in the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States indicate that members of the more externally orientated managerial functions (such as marketing and strategic planning) score more innovatively than more internally orientated managers (e.g. in production management, accounting and quality control). However, the research shows that within each of the major functional areas of management, relatively internally orientated and relatively externally orientated management groups can be identified; moreover, the latter score significantly more innovatively than the former. The paper discusses the relevance of these findings to the management of change in organizations (especially in view of recent claims that all managers must embrace and cope with radical and turbulent change), and for the composition and management of effective task groups. Recent criticism has alleged that abridged measures of the KAI (consisting respectively of 20 and 13 of its items) provide more coherent and orthogonal subscales, and that use of the factors comprising adaption-innovation would elucidate managerial behaviour. These propositions are tested by employing all three versions of the KAI in the analysis. The results lead to the conclusion that the three versions of the KAI produce identical results with respect to the creative styles of managerial functions and subfunctions and that the use of the subscales adds little, if anything, to our understanding of managerial creativity.     

Transformational leadership and attachment

Attachment theory posits that the child's experiences with attachment figures (mostly parents) form the basis for an internal working model of self and others that can be either secure (others and self are perceived positively) or insecure (others or self are perceived negatively). In adulthood, these models are reflected in attachment styles which are manifested in various realms (e.g., romantic relationships). This article expands the conceptualization derived from attachment theory to the area of leadership. The arguments presented are anchored in the similarity found in the literature between characteristics of the secure attachment style and those of transformational leaders. The central hypothesis is that the style of transformational leadership will correlate positively with the secure attachment style. This hypothesis was examined in three studies conducted in officers' courses, using different sources of report in each study. In all three studies, significant correlations were found between secure attachment and transformational leadership. This new direction of research has important implications for the understanding of the personality and development processes of transformational leaders.     

Self-other rating agreement and leader effectiveness

This study examined relationships between two models of self-other rating agreement and leader effectiveness. Using differences between self- and subordinate ratings, managers (N = 2,056) were first categorized into four groups: over-estimators (who rated themselves higher than others rated them); under-estimators (who rated themselves lower than others rated them); in-agreement/good raters (whose self-ratings were favorable and similar to the ratings of others); and, in-agreement/poor raters (whose self-ratings were unfavorable and similar to the ratings of others) (Atwater & Yammarino, in press). Then, managers were classified using a six group model (Brutus, Fleenor,& Taylor, 1996), which introduced a further distinction—over-estimators/good, and under-estimators/poor. With the four group model, superiors appeared to rate in-agreement/good raters and under-estimators as more effective than over-estimators. However, with the six group model, in-agreement/good raters and under-estimator/good raters were not seen as more effective than over-estimator/good raters. The results suggested that six groups are necessary to fairly compare agreement groups.     

Self–other agreement in empowering leadership: Relationships with leader effectiveness and subordinates' job satisfaction and turnover intention

We investigated the effect of self–other agreement in empowering leadership on leader effectiveness, job satisfaction, and turnover intention using a sample of 50 Norwegian municipal leaders (46 for leader effectiveness) and 168 (158) of their subordinates. The findings indicated that considering both self and subordinate ratings of empowering leadership was useful in predicting the outcome variables. In particular, subordinates of over-estimators reported lower job satisfaction and higher turnover intention. Moreover, leaders who underestimated their leadership were perceived as more effective by their superiors. For agreement (i.e., leader's self-ratings were in agreement with subordinates' ratings) the relationship between empowering leadership and leader effectiveness was curvilinear with an inverted U shape. Agreement in ratings of empowering leadership was not found to be related to subordinates' job satisfaction and turnover intention. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Self-monitoring and 360-degree ratings

We examined the relationship between self-monitoring (SM) and supervisor, assessor, peer, and subordinate ratings for 191 managers who participated in a developmental assessment center. We collected self-ratings from the managers concerning their ability and motivation to engage in self-monitoring. SM ability was positively related to supervisor and assessor ratings of interpersonal effectiveness (e.g., empowerment, managing teams, influencing others) but was unrelated to supervisor and assessor ratings of business competence (e.g., planning, decision making, strategic thinking, business knowledge). In contrast, SM motivation was negatively related to peer ratings of business competence. Still, SM explained relatively little variance in 360-degree ratings. 360-degree ratings do not appear to be contaminated by the target manager's SM; the small but significant relationship between SM ability and ratings appears to be job-related (and therefore desirable).     

Beneath the mask:: Examining the relationship of self-presentation attributes and impression management to charismatic leadership

We tested several hypotheses derived from Gardner and Avolio's [Acad. Manage. Rev. 23 (1998) 32.] self-presentational theory of charismatic leadership. We collected multisource field data in an information technology (IT) consulting firm and examined linkages among managers' self-system attributes (i.e., desired charismatic identity, self-monitoring), pro-social and self-serving impression management of managers, charismatic leadership of managers, and two measures of performance. Eighty-three managers provided self-reports of self-system attributes. Six months later, 249 subordinates rated the focal managers' impression management and charismatic leadership styles. Superiors of the focal managers provided performance ratings 7 months after collecting the subordinate ratings. Results indicated that complexity of desired charismatic identity was positively related to self-monitoring. Self-monitoring was negatively related to ratings of pro-social impression management and positively related to ratings of self-serving impression management. Pro-social impression management related positively to charismatic leadership, which predicted managerial and unit performance.     

The role of personal values in the charismatic leadership of corporate managers: A model and preliminary field study

This study used multi-source field data collected in five organizations to examine linkages among managers' personal value system (i.e., intensity of openness to change, traditional, collectivistic work, self-transcendent, and self-enhancement values), charismatic leadership of managers, and three outcome measures. Two-hundred and eighteen managers provided self-reports of their personal values and ratings of their followers' extra effort and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Nine-hundred and forty-five subordinates rated the focal managers' charismatic leadership. Superiors of the focal managers provided ratings of managerial performance 2 months after collecting the managers' and subordinates' ratings. Results indicated that traditional, collectivistic work, self-transcendent, and self-enhancement values related positively to charismatic leadership, which predicted managerial performance and followers' extra effort and OCB. Managerial performance moderated the relationships between leaders' values, charismatic leadership, and followers' outcomes.     

Integrity's place among the character strengths of middle-level managers and top-level executives

One purpose of this study was to extend integrity research in organizations into the ranks of middle management. We therefore examined whether middle-level managers' behavioral manifestations of integrity related to ratings of their performance. Results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that direct report ratings of a middle-level manager's integrity were positively related to boss ratings of that manager's performance. A second purpose of this study was to understand differences in integrity's relative importance to performance among other character strengths, and as a function of context (e.g., managerial level). We extend research in this area by showing, through relative weight analysis, that integrity was relatively less important to middle-level managers' current performance compared to other character strengths (e.g., social intelligence). In contrast, integrity was relatively more important for the performance of top-level executives — roles middle-level managers may hold in the future. Implications of these results for future research and practice as well as the current study's limitations are discussed.     

Leadership Styles as Predictors of Self‐reported and Observed Workplace Bullying

The connection between leadership or management style, on the one hand, and perceptions of bullying, on the other, has received little attention within bullying research. Hence, the aim of this study is to examine the relationship between subordinates' ratings of their immediate superiors' behaviours, and both perceived exposure and claims of observations of bullying at work. Based on a sampling process which emphasized randomness and representativeness, the responses from 5288 respondents in Great Britain taking part in a nationwide study on psychosocial issues at work were included in the analysis. Bullying correlated with all four leadership styles measured. Yet, ‘non‐contingent punishment’ emerged as the strongest predictor of self‐perceived exposure to bullying, while autocratic leadership was the strongest predictor of observed bullying. Hence, while observers particularly associate bullying with autocratic or tyrannical leader behaviour, targets relate bullying more to non‐contingent punishment, i.e. an unpredictable style of leadership, where punishment is meted out or delivered on leaders' own terms, independent of the behaviour of subordinates. In addition, laissez‐faire leadership emerged as a predictor of self‐reported as well as observed bullying. Thus, leadership styles seem to play an important but complex role in the bullying process.     

Effects of Leadership Style,Creativity Technique and Personal Initiative on Employee Creativity

Transformational leadership is assumed to enhance employees' creativity. However, results of meta‐analytic research on the relations between transformational leadership and creativity have fallen short of expectations. The authors argue that, besides leadership style, the creativity technique that a leader employs is an important means of stimulating employees' creativity. In addition, it is assumed that leadership styles and creativity techniques may have different effects, depending on the measure of creativity output (quantitative vs qualitative). Therefore, in an experimental setting, the effects of different creativity techniques (provocation technique vs brainwriting) and leadership styles (transformational vs transactional) on both quantitative and qualitative creativity were examined. Results showed that transformational leadership and provocation technique led to higher levels of qualitative creativity than transactional leadership and brainwriting, respectively. Conversely, transactional leadership and brainwriting were more effective for quantitative creativity. The additional benefit of the provocation technique in qualitative creativity was found to be higher in the transactional leadership condition than in the transformational leadership condition. Moreover, personal initiative made a significant and independent contribution to both qualitative and quantitative creativity. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.     

Self–other rating agreement in leadership: A review

This paper reviews the theoretical and empirical literature on self–other rating agreement (SOA) related to leadership in the workplace, focusing primarily on research published between 1997 (the year of Atwater &; Yammarino's seminal paper on SOA) and the present. Much of the current interest in SOA derives from its purported relationships with self-awareness and leader effectiveness. The literature, however, has used a variety of metrics to assess SOA, resulting in discrepancies between findings across studies. As multi-rater (360-degree; multisource) feedback instruments continue to be widely used as a measure of leadership in organizations, it is important that we more clearly understand the relationships between SOA and its predictors and outcomes. To this end, in this article, we review (a) models of agreement, (b) factors affecting self-ratings and the congruence between self–others' ratings, (c) factors affecting others' ratings, (d) correlates of agreement, and (e) measurement issues and data analytic techniques. We conclude with discussions of practitioner issues and directions for future research.     

The Impact of Information System Personnel Skill Discrepancies on Stakeholder Satisfaction

System development efforts depend to a large degree upon how well information systems (IS) managers, IS specialists, and IS users work together in a project team structure. Yet, these individuals frequently work under different perceptions about matters of importance to development, management, and success. This paper introduces a framework for examining IS specialists' skill requirements from a multiple‐stakeholder perspective. Derived from discrepancy theory, the framework concedes that different stakeholders hold a variable set of expectations for IS personnel skill levels as well as a perception of skills held by IS personnel. We examine differences in expectation and performance expressed by each group and describe the impact of the discrepancy on user satisfaction, career satisfaction of IS specialists, and on job performance evaluations by IS managers. Results confirm that a discrepancy between an IS specialist's expectations of skill and their perceived skill self‐proficiency impacts career satisfaction. Similar relations hold for IS managers and users. Since different stakeholders may hold different perceptions, satisfaction of all parties becomes problematic unless a common frame of reference can be determined.     

How displaying empathic concern may differentially predict career derailment potential for women and men leaders in Australia

Past research notes the importance of emotions in the workplace. Much less is known about the role that empathic concern, an affect-laden construct, plays in predicting a leader's career advancement using measures of one's upward mobility, such as career derailment potential. Data provided by practicing managers in Australia show that leaders who displayed behaviors that convey empathic concern receive lower ratings of career derailment potential. We also found that gender was a statistically significant moderator of these relationships. With boss rating of derailment potential as the outcome, the negative relationship between empathic concern and derailment potential was statistically significant for women only. With peer ratings of derailment potential as the outcome, the negative relationship between empathic concern and derailment potential was stronger for women than men. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Swimming Pool Hygiene: Self-Monitoring,Task Clarification,and Performance Feedback Increase Lifeguard Cleaning Behaviors

The effects of task clarification, self-monitoring, and performance feedback on cleaning behaviors of 9 lifeguards in 3 performance areas (vacuuming, lobby tidying, and pool deck maintenance) were investigated using an ABA reversal design at a county swim complex. A specific task in each performance area was used as a behavioral control. Following a task clarification meeting, the percentage of closing tasks completed each night was self-monitored through ratings by lifeguards and managers. Researchers conducted independent ratings of these completed tasks after the staff had left the building. Feedback data were posted daily using line graphs that displayed the percentage of tasks completed correctly from both self-report and researchers' data. Overall performance increased from an average of 45.1% correct behaviors during baseline to an average of 76.9% during intervention then reversed to baseline during follow-up to an average performance of 45.05%.     

Administrative Reform and Style of Work Behavior: Adaptors-Innovators

In this paper the situation of Iranian reform agents from their style of work behavior point of view (such as problem solving and decision making) is analyzed.The assessment is based on a modified version of Kirton's theory of adaptors and innovators (modified KAI). The purpose of this study is to see whether the reform agents were seen as innovative enough to bring about fundamental changes in Iranian bureaucracy. The study of work behavior makes a difference in how people approach, solve and communicate problems, and therefore, may influence the success of reform program. Although the results indicate that the reform program was not perceived as having been as successful as expected, however, about 75 percent of Iranian reform agents could be categorized as innovative-inclined. The level of education and age account for little of the variance in the responses. Differences in the (modified) KAI mean scores of the agents of reform working in different organizations may explain some communication problems.     

Adaptors and innovators—Why new initiatives get blocked

The Adaption-Innovation theory is concerned with differences in the thinking style of individuals, with particular reference to creativity, problem solving and decision making. These concepts will have particular relevance for managers, since they focus on the interaction between people and their often changing work environment, offering managers new information on, and insight into, the personality aspects of change in organizations.This article explains the theory, outlines its background and development and reviews some of the research and current thinking which have emerged from studies using a widely tested measure—the Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory.     

Rewarding creativity: when does it really matter?

This study examined the possibility that the relation between extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay and recognition) and employee creativity varied as a function of two conditions: employee job complexity and employee cognitive style. Our results showed a positive relation between extrinsic rewards and creativity for employees with an adaptive cognitive style who worked on relatively simple jobs. We found a weak relation between rewards and creativity for employees with an innovative cognitive style who worked on complex jobs and a negative relation for those in the adaptive style/complex job and innovative style/simple job conditions. We discussed theoretical and practical implications of these findings.     

Corporate Managers' Reactions to Assertive Social Skills Exhibited by Males and Females

While a number of investigators have suggested that assertiveness is an important interpersonal skill for both males and females in work-related settings, few studies have empirically evaluated how corporate managers react to assertiveness exhibited by others. The current study examined whether managers react differently to identical assertive responses made by females versus by males, and also compared manager reactions to several different types of verbal content in assertive responses. The procedure consisted of presenting managers with taped vignettes that showed either a male or female model handling several work-related conflicts assertively. The portrayed models were either directly assertive, assertive but moderating their assertion with an empathic comment to the antagonist in the situation, or assertive but tempering the response with a self-effacing comment. Based on interpersonal evaluation ratings completed later by the managers, self-effacing assertive models of both sexes were rated unfavorably relative to either directly assertive or empathic-assertive models. Empathic comments preceding an assertive response resulted in more favorable manager reactions on several criteria. Finally, on almost all measures, assertive behavior exhibited by females was evaluated as positively as the same behavior exhibited by males. Implications for assertive training of males and females in the business setting are considered.     

Integrating Knowledge through Information Trading: Examining the Relationship between Boundary Spanning Communication and Individual Performance*

With the global penetration of Internet technologies, individuals may now cross organizational boundaries to communicate efficiently with others regardless of time and space. Thus, when looking for help in solving work tasks, knowledge workers may just as easily contact individuals in rival firms across the globe as a coworker sitting at the next desk. As a result, management faces questions such as (1) How should firms manage employees' knowledge‐sourcing activities when they span both intra‐organizational and extra‐organizational boundaries, and (2) What is the relationship between different knowledge‐sourcing activities and individual performance? Grounded in the knowledge‐based view of the firm, we investigate these questions using data from Europe's largest information technology (IT) services and management consulting company. Our results provide evidence that organizations should support boundary spanning and knowledge sourcing from both internal and external sources. Results suggest (1) a positive relationship between boundary spanning communication and creativity and general performance, and (2) a negative relationship between a reliance on colocated coworkers as knowledge sources and creativity.