收入不平等与个体健康——基于2005年中国综合社会调查的实证分析

文章利用2005年中国综合社会调查（CGSS2005）数据与县级社会统计资料,通过拟合多层Logistic回归模型,分析了地区收入不平等程度对个体健康状况的影响,系统检验了绝对收入理论和收入不平等理论。结果表明,即使在控制了个体收入对健康的凹陷效应之后,县级收入不平等程度仍对个体自评健康具有显著的负面影响。对收入不平等影响健康的作用机制的进一步分析表明,社会心理机制仅能部分解释不平等对健康的负面效应,而新唯物主义机制未能得到经验支持。     

Poverty assessment as a multidimensional socio-economic concept: the case of the Rawalpindi region in Pakistan

The definition on poverty has progressed into a multidimensional concept focusing more on socio-economic dimensions than being a mere measure of financial deprivation. Corresponding to this advancement, this study investigated the incidence of multidimensional poverty (MDP) in the Rawalpindi region of Pakistan, taking into account three dimensions, i.e. education, health and housing. Findings revealed an inconsistent declining trend of MDP over time. This inconsistency was mainly attributed to observed fluctuations in deprivation levels of education, health and housing in the region. Over time, education deprivation showed a significant net increase. Notably, the magnitude of MDP in rural areas was higher than in urban areas.     

Impact of socio-economic infrastructure investments on income inequality in Iran

One of the main subjects, governments have been facing is fair distribution of income, and making effort to improve it. In this study, we evaluated the effects of economic (energy, water, ICT) and social (health, education) infrastructure expenses on income inequality in the Iranian provinces for the period of 2007–2016 by the panel corrected standard errors (PCSE) model. The results show that social and economic infrastructures improvements reduce income inequality. However, the magnitude of these effects varies. Investment on education, healthcare, communication technology, energy, and water infrastructures has the greatest impact on income inequality reduction, respectively. Therefore, in order to reduce inequality in deprived areas, combination and optimal allocation of economic and social infrastructures should be considered.     

Convergence of family policy across welfare regimes (1990 to 2010): Different connotations of family policy expansion

Using multiple indices of family policy efforts – work/family reconciliation, gender equality and income protection, this study offers a nuanced understanding of family policy expansion in 14 OECD countries across three welfare regimes from 1990 to 2010. Findings suggest an overall convergence of family policies, particularly in gender equality and work/family reconciliation. Convergence has occurred simultaneously with distinctive family policy changes across welfare regimes. Conservative welfare states have experienced the most profound family policy alterations, shifting from a traditional gender model to one that encourages women's employment, but have, nevertheless, maintained policy efforts that sustain the traditional gender role. Despite an increase in their family policy efforts, liberal welfare states have continued to maintain minimal state action regarding family policy. Changes in social democratic welfare states have been less substantial, as they seem to continue to pursue a dual‐earner model with high degree of gender equality and work/family reconciliation.     

地理空间与住房不平等:基于CFPS2016的经验分析

与关注中国城镇住房制度改革中的体制性因素和市场能力因素对住房不平等的影响，以及着重以个体的劳动力市场处境予以解释的观点不同，本文认为，居住有很强的空间粘滞性，地理空间差异同样是理解住房不平等问题不可忽视的结构性因素。对2016年“中国家庭追踪调查”（CFPS）数据的分析发现，居民家庭房产的地区差异具有高度的统计显著性。基尼系数按地理空间分解后显示，相对于家庭收入或家庭人均收入的地理空间差异而言，家庭住房资产的地理空间差异更为突出；运用赫克曼两步回归法分析资料发现，地理空间因素不仅影响产权住房的获得，对房产产值的效应也具有高度的统计显著性。这些发现都支持了我们的基本论点：地理空间差异不只是住房不平等的外在表现，而是导致住房不平等的不可忽视的因素。关注地理空间这一结构情境对个体行为的影响及其社会不平等后果不仅有现实的政策意义，也有助于拓展当代中国社会分层研究的视角。     

Anti‐Poverty Family Policies in China: A Critical Evaluation

Despite its rapid economic growth, China remains a developing country facing serious challenges of poverty and inequality. This article examines the development and effectiveness of China's primary anti‐poverty family policy, the Minimum Living Standard Assurance (MLSA, or Dibao). Using rich administrative data and building on the existing literature, this article provides a critical evaluation of MLSA's benefit generosity, coverage, targeting, and anti‐poverty effectiveness. To help reinforce MLSA's anti‐poverty impacts, local governments in recent years have implemented a series of supplementary policies and programs, including health, education, housing, and work support programs. This article also provides an assessment of these supplementary policies and programs and draws policy implications for the ongoing expansion of the Chinese government's anti‐poverty efforts.     

Income and Power Inequality as Determinants of Environmental and Health Outcomes: Some Findings*

Objective. The article corrects for two main shortcomings in conventional economic analyses of environmental change. First is the overemphasis placed on income growth, and general disregard for other socioeconomic factors. Second is economists' often oversimplified view of the environment, where distinctions between environmental necessities such as potable water and so‐called environmental luxuries are ignored. I test for the effectiveness of power inequality in explaining access to sanitation and safe water as well as their health consequences. Methods. I develop a two‐stage model seeking first to explain changes in the environmental variables and then population health. I employ ordinary least squares regressions on international cross‐sectional data. Results. Some dimensions of power inequality outperform per‐capita income as possible determinants of population health. Neither power inequality nor income is clearly superior at explaining environmental quality. Conclusion. The study casts further doubt on the importance of per‐capita income in explaining environmental and health outcomes.     

The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries

The aim of this article is to offer detailed information of the redistributive impact of social transfer programmes and taxes in 28 Member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development, employing data that have been computed from the Luxembourg Income Study's micro‐level database. We find that welfare states on average reduce inequality by 35 per cent. Social benefits have a much stronger redistributive impact than taxes. As far as social programmes are concerned, public pensions account for the largest reduction in income inequality, although the pattern is diverse across countries. To a lesser extent, social assistance, disability and family benefits also contribute to smaller income disparities.     

Social Insurance and Older Adults in China: Effect of Education and Household Income on Coverage Following the 2009 Health Reform

Abstract

Education and income have been considered two primary determinants to affect individuals’ health outcomes. China initiated a comprehensive health reform in 2009, with the goals to provide equal access yet sufficient healthcare to all residents. However, social disparities continue to persist following this large reform. This research hypothesized that older adults’ years of education and income are determinants of participation in each social insurance scheme following the 2009 health reform. Multilevel logistic regression models were used with a nationally representative sample (n?=?5,274) to investigate the education and income disparities in each social insurance scheme for older adults, with random effects among provinces at the national level. The analyses show that years of education was not associated with enrollment in three social insurances, with the exception of the association between 11?years of formal education or above and the rural coverage. Participants with higher levels of household income had greater odds of having urban social insurances, but had lower odds of having the rural scheme. Further research should continue to investigate the disparities of enrollment of each social insurance. Chinese policy makers should consider these social factors carefully to reach a true universal coverage.     

Retesting the income inequality hypothesis: Pooled time‐series–cross‐section regression with a new statistical case selection method

The Wilkinson hypothesis, which posits that it is income inequality, rather than economic growth, that determines population health in wealthy societies has been widely debated over decades. This article, with an original case selection process, retests the controversial hypothesis with the time‐series–cross‐section (TSCS) regression model. The main findings are that disposable income inequality is not statistically significantly associated with life expectancy, and its influences on the health of the elderly population are counterintuitively beneficial. Infant mortality rate is the only health indicator that both has the statistically significant association with income inequality and corresponds with the Wilkinson hypothesis. Finally, the relationship between income inequality and population health is not as simple as the hypothesis suggests and found to be dynamic and complex depending on what health indicator is used for the test.     

Effectiveness of Social Welfare Programmes in East Asia: A Case Study of Taiwan

Using the 2008 Family Income and Expenditure Survey, this study examined the effectiveness of social welfare programmes in Taiwan. The empirical evidence shows that most types of social welfare spending were limited in 2008. However, the social welfare programmes that were in place substantially reduced income inequality in Taiwan. Using the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) poverty threshold, the results reveal that 14 per cent of the sample's families were poor in terms of market income, but this figure decreased to 7 per cent after government intervention. Income inequality in Taiwan was similar to that of other East Asian countries such as Japan and South Korea, but Taiwan spent much less money on social welfare programmes than OECD countries, and therefore Taiwan's reduction of poverty was much lower as well.     

Gender and health among older people: What is the role of social policies?

The study investigated how social policies moderate the association between gender and health among older people across European countries. The study is the first to take a comprehensive view on the role of social policies in connection with gender inequality in health among older Europeans. The association between gender and poor self‐rated health and limiting long‐standing illness was investigated in a multilevel framework. Cross‐level interaction effects showed that more generous minimum pensions, higher spending on eldercare and a higher degree of eldercare formalisation are associated with relatively better health among women, while more generous standard pensions are associated with relatively better health among men. The conclusion is that policies directed towards older people are not gender neutral; rather they are likely to affect men and women differently. By shaping the distribution of resources as well as of unpaid work, social policies can contribute to either strengthening or weakening the link between gender and health.     

代际累积与子代住房资源获得的不平等:基于广州的个案分析

本文通过"代际累积"概念探讨了父代住房支持的差异引发的子代住房不平等问题。参考以往通过"优势累积/劣势累积"两条因果路径分析社会不平等的方法和最新文献对累积过程的关注,本研究将弥补以往累积与社会不平等研究忽视代际分析的不足,从因果机制和过程分析两方面推进代际累积对住房不平等的解释。对前者的研究发现,住房制度改革拓宽了个体住房资源获得的渠道,父代家庭对子代的住房支持从无到有、由小变大,其对住房不平等的影响也日渐凸显;对后者的研究表明,代际累积这一因果机制所解释的住房不平等并非稳定不变的,受一些因素的影响,既有累积趋势可能会发生异于原初累积方向的变动,甚至是累积断裂。这一发现弥补了代际优势/劣势累积这一因果机制未能澄清累积过程中波动存在的理论缺憾。     

Community Heterogeneity: A Burden for the Creation of Social Capital?*

Objective. This study examines the relationship between community heterogeneity and social capital on the local government level. Method. We apply both OLS and interval regression techniques to objective macro data of 307 Flemish municipalities for the year 2000. Results. Our results show that, after controlling for various socioeconomic characteristics of the municipality, income inequality is not significantly correlated with the municipality's level of social capital. We do find a significant negative relation between social capital and the number of nationalities within a municipality. Yet, contrary to the prevailing argument in the literature, it is not the presence of people with a clearly different ethnic‐cultural background that drives this negative relation. Conclusions. In accordance with previous international findings, municipalities with large groups of differing nationalities among its citizenry are confronted with a lower level of social capital. Importantly, however, our findings emphasize the need to distinguish between different groups of nationalities and argue for explanations beyond “simple” ethnic‐cultural disparities.     

Income inequality and health outcomes in the United States: An empirical analysis

A growing body of research suggests a relationship between health and income inequality. This study specifically analyzes the correlation between income inequality, measured by state-level Gini coefficients from the American Community Survey (ACS), and individual behavioral, physical, and mental health outcomes from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) for 2006 through 2014. After controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, health insurance status, year trends, and state fixed effects, income inequality was found to have significant relationships with behavioral, physical, and mental health outcomes, including heavy drinking, obesity, exercise, diabetes, heart attack, heart disease, physical and mental health problems, and depression, and often the impact on low-income individuals is slightly smaller than on the high-income group. The research suggests that economic policies to address the rising income inequality in the United States might serve to also address some of our nation’s most troubling health statistics.     

The Good Life: what about the children?

This paper is a reflective historical survey of how Australia, despite its affluence, has not delivered ‘the good life’ to poor Australians, both indigenous and non‐indigenous. It argues that, contrary to our national mythology, this country was founded on institutionalised social inequality and on the exclusion of Indigenous people from land rights, property and equal citizenship. As one of the world's twenty richest countries, we perform poorly across a wide range of social and health indicators because we suffer from entrenched, systemic and growing inequality. If we are to survive the challenges that face us from climate change and the global financial crisis, we need to shape policies that mitigate income and social inequality and that promote inclusion and better social cohesion.     

Social work with middle‐class Spanish families: The challenge of the work–family conflict

In the current economic crisis, middle‐class families often find themselves immersed in a process of downward social mobility. These are families in which both spouses work, and where many relational conflicts begin in the sphere of work–family reconciliation and the allocation of household responsibilities. This article presents the results of a research study we conducted on middle‐class families in Spain. We focus specifically on the problems associated with work–family reconciliation and gender, and the mitigating role played by social support. Based on our results, we want to call the attention to a prevalent and ‘new’ conflict in family‐based practice social work in Spain: the work–family conflict.     

Intergenerational income mobility and inequality in South Korea

Using data from the Korean Labor and Income Panel Study (KLIPS), recent trends in intergenerational income mobility were explored, examining the relationship between income mobility and income inequality in South Korea. The study found that the intergenerational elasticity of income is about 0.2 and there is no clear‐cut trend in intergenerational income mobility. In addition, this study showed that there is no systematic relation between rising income inequality and intergenerational income mobility in contemporary Korea. Overall, the results indicate that intergenerational income mobility is irresponsive to the income inequality the respondents experienced growing up. It is assumed that education and welfare transfer programs might offset the consequences of income inequality by leading to upward mobility for children from low‐income households.     

The relationship between different social expenditure schemes and poverty,inequality and economic growth

In this article, we study how social expenditure is related to poverty, income inequality and GDP growth. Our main contribution is to disentangle these relationships by the following social expenditure schemes: 1) “old age and survivors”, 2) “incapacity”, 3) “health”, 4) “family”, 5) “unemployment and active labour market policies” and 6) “housing and others”. For this purpose, we employ OLS and 2SLS regression models using a panel data set for 22 Member States of the European Union from 1990 until 2015. We find total public social expenditure to be negatively related to poverty and inequality, but not related to GDP growth. The results vary substantially between the different social expenditure schemes, which makes more accurate targeting possible.     

教育对非农就业工资收入不平等的解释研究

基于分位数回归方法和1989~2009年CHNS的入户数据,根据明瑟方程的回归结果显示,低收入组的教育收益率高于高收入组的教育收益率。通过重新构建的工资不平等程度度量变量和教育不平等以及经验差异度量变量,对离差模型的分位数回归结果显示虽然教育能够提高低收入群体的工资收入,但是教育差距并不能很好地解释收入不平等的扩大。