Increased differentiation between individuals,but no genetic isolation from adjacent rural individuals in an urban red squirrel population

Whether or not individuals in cities and adjacent rural areas form separate populations depends on the origin of urbanized individuals. The rural individuals may have simply gradually invaded the city. Alternatively, the urbanization depended on arrival of individuals with specific adaptations for city life. A population within the city could also remain separated from adjacent rural populations if there are physical or behavioural dispersal barriers lowering the possibility of genetic exchange between individuals. All this is linked to dispersal behaviour of the species as gene flow is determined by distances moved during dispersal. In this study, we used microsatellite markers to evaluate whether or not Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) individuals in an urban environment are genetically separated from their sub-urban/rural counterparts. Using radio-telemetry, we also studied natal dispersal distances of urban red squirrels to evaluate the potential for gene flow within the city. We observed no indication that urban squirrels had been genetically isolated from rural squirrels. In addition, increased amount of built area did not explain differentiation between urban individuals, further indicating that there were no barriers restricting movement. Still, the genetic differentiation within the city was increased and natal dispersal distances relatively short, perhaps indicating lack of need to move long distances in the urban environment. We conclude that urban and adjacent rural squirrels were part of the same larger population with gene flow in and out from the city. Yet, urbanization was related to increased genetic differentiation, indicating different spatial genetic structure in urban and rural populations.     

Morphological differences along a chronological gradient of urbanisation in an endemic insectivorous bird of New Zealand

Urbanisation constitutes one of the most rapid human-induced environmental changes, developing at the expense of natural and semi-natural habitats. It often implies alterations of many abiotic and biotic factors and contributes to create new environmental conditions, including temperature, food resources, competition and predation. Despite increasing empirical evidence of intra-specific divergence in phenotypic traits (e.g., physiological, behavioural or morphological) between urban and rural individuals, such patterns have often remained disconnected from the underlying mechanisms involved. In the current study, we tested for divergence in functional morphological traits that are related to feeding ecology (i.e., bill morphology, body mass and condition) and/or to the locomotory performance in escaping from predators (i.e., wing, tarsus and tail morphology, body mass and condition) along a chronological gradient of urbanisation (old urban, recent urban and rural areas), using the New Zealand fantail, an endemic insectivorous passerine species. We found divergences in phenotypic traits related to bill morphology along the urban–rural gradient: birds inhabiting the old urban area had stubbier bills (i.e., shorter, deeper and wider bills) than those inhabiting the recent urban and rural areas. We did not detect any difference in locomotion-related morphological traits. Our results suggest the urbanisation-induced alteration in food resources may drive morphological divergence in bird populations. We emphasized the need for mechanistic and experimental studies, with a particular focus on resource-based mechanisms, to identify more precisely the morphological responses of urban populations to changes in food composition, and the resulting implications for communities in urban ecosystems.

     

Differences in biometry and body condition of the House Sparrow (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Passer domesticus</Emphasis>) in urban and rural population during breeding season

Data collected out of the breeding season suggest that House sparrows (Passer domesticus) from the urban populations are characterized by a smaller body size and poorer body condition compared to birds from rural populations. Considering an urbanized Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) and other potential predators, a new predator-prey dependency is developing that can also be a reason for the House sparrow’s poorer condition. This study was aimed at comparing the multivariate biometrical characteristics and few body condition indices of adult birds from urban and rural populations during the breeding season. It was hypothesized that a higher predation risk during the breeding season concerns mainly males, thus affecting their poorer condition. Most of the condition indices of males were significantly lower in the urban population. Males from the urban populations had lower body mass, shorter tarsus, longer alula, greater Kipp’s distance and higher wing pointedness index in comparison to the birds from rural populations, whereas these differences were not found between females. We suggest that the lower body condition and biometric differences in the analyzed birds are a means of adapting to the new predator-prey scheme in accordance to the tradeoff theory between starvation and predation risks. A lower condition of birds in poor foraging urban habitats and higher predation risk may be indicative of a declining population.     

Colonization and habitat selection of a declining farmland species in urban areas

Despite the accelerating global urbanization and its associated implications for wildlife and humans, we know little about the biology of urban ecosystems. Here, we investigated colonization and habitat selection of the European hare (Lepus europaeus), a declining farmland species, in urban areas in Denmark, using a combination of citizen science data and transect counts. Further, we estimated the population density of urban hares in Aarhus, Denmark’s second largest city. Our results provide the first evidence that hares have established populations in urban areas, potentially in response to decreasing habitat quality in rural areas due to agricultural intensification. The hare density in Aarhus was ca. 8 hares per km², which is comparable to or slightly higher than hare abundance estimates from various pastural areas in Europe, suggesting that urban areas provide suitable habitat for hares. Hare habitat selection was generally associated with areas consisting of large lawns, such as high buildings and parks, which potentially provide high-quality forage throughout the year. Considering the increasing expansion of urban areas and deteriorating habitat quality of agricultural areas, urban planning that incorporates habitat requirements for wildlife could help to support urban animal populations, especially for species of conservation concern.

     

The spatial genetic structure of the yellow-necked mouse in an urban environment – a recent invader vs. a closely related permanent inhabitant

We analyse the genetic variability in the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) population in the city of Warsaw, Poland, and its surroundings - a species that has begun to occupy the city only in the last 30 years. We also compare the genetic variability of this species with corresponding data collected in the same time and areas for another species - the striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius). The results indicate a gradual decrease in genetic diversity and increase in relatedness in the population of A. flavicollis from non-urban locations towards sites with the highest anthropopressure. The genetic structure was more pronounced in the 'recent invader' (A. flavicollis) than in the 'permanent inhabitant' (A. agrarius), which has a much longer city colonization history (more than 100 years). In general, FST was higher in A. flavicollis, which may indicate different and independent ways of city colonization by the species. The process by which urban areas are settled by a new, typically forest-dwelling species such as A. flavicollis, more 'sensitive' to the conditions of life in a city, probably includes not only successful events of penetration of the city by small groups of individuals (the founder effect), but also temporary extinctions of local urban populations of A. flavicollis or at least marked fluctuations in species population numbers. Suitably planned areas at the city borders could play an important role as 'gateways' through which individuals from non-urban populations could migrate into the city and join urban populations.     

新型城市化是上海城市发展转型的必由之路

中国在推进城市化进程中,以城市人口占总人口的比例来表示城市化率的方法,实践证明并不科学。目前农村与城市的＂二元结构＂依然很突出。上海作为国内城市化率最高的城市,也有＂概念性市区＂问题,需要走新型城市化道路,在完成＂人口转移型＂城市化前提下,加快向＂结构转换型＂城市化转变。     

Fertility variation among the U.S. foreign stock population in 1900

In the late 19th century, the US population included a large number of 1st and 2nd generation immigrants from European countries, often with relatively high fertility levels. This article investigates the degree to which fertility behavior changed as a result of social structural characteristics of the environment such as urbanization and children's role, the diffusion of fertility values and information from the native population, and the role of cultural values or resistance to change. By 1900 nationality groups within urban and rural environments in the US were showing amazingly similar degrees of adaptation in fertility patterns. Distinctive fertility patterns were being maintained over generations, but there appeared to be little inherence in the national culture or mentalities of the various European populations which retarded the speed of reproductive change, or even the legitimacy of smaller families. The clear continuing variations by nationality in fertility were geared to reflect social structural differences such as agricultural background and the functional role of children, rather than unique cultural outlooks. Even within the 1st generation, fertility variation across states responded in a regular manner to social structural factors, such as the agricultural orientation of the population and the importance of child labor. Other evidence suggests that some diffusion of fertility values must have been occurring from the native white to the foreign born population, especially within the urban parts of the US where greater contact was probably facilitated. The foreign born seemed particularly resistant to adoption of low fertility behavior in rural states where they comprised a significant segment of the population, and thus were probably able to isolate themselves more easily. These results do not support the notion of relative unique cultural adaptation. It may be that studies of the European transition have placed too much emphasis on cultural mentalities within various populations as a cause of different reproductive trends.     

Beyond the European Rural Areas: the Need for Strategic Approaches

The European Commission has paid and is paying particular attention to rural development by increasing the measures and the resources available in order to enhance the environment, the quality of life in rural areas and also provides incentives to diversify economic activities in rural areas. The current European delimitation of rural areas is the result of the application of OECD methodology. According to this methodology, the level of population density is the common and only criterion adopted. This indicator can be interpreted as a direct function of attractiveness: the higher the population, the more attractive an area and vice versa. However, the concept of rural can have different definitions, influenced by the economic, social, political needs or contexts, added to which the application of the OEDC methodology tends to flatten different situations. The most important processes of change that the methodology is not able to identify are the urbanisation trend which entices population and economic activity out of more remote rural areas into urban and accessible rural areas and the counter-urbanisation flow from urban regions into accessible rural areas. The final aim of the Chapter is to evaluate whether both current and new strategies are coherent with territorial needs and whether the inherent territorial disparities require a tailored definition and policy. Consequently, the analysis takes into consideration the different European socio-economic situation, the agricultural and forestry sectors, the levels of diversification and the quality of life and the state of the environment.     

Mindfulness,Emotion and Behaviour: An Intervention Study with Chinese Migrant Children

Migrant children in China who move from rural to urban areas face significantly greater emotional and behavioural challenges than their urban peers. In recent decades, western countries have used mindfulness to enhance child psychosocial and behavioural outcomes. This approach has not yet been applied to rural‐to‐urban migrant children in China. This study utilised one‐group pretest‐posttest design to examine the effects of a 4‐week school‐based mindfulness intervention on Chinese migrant children's emotions and behaviours. The results show that mindfulness training significantly improved participants’ mindfulness. The training was particularly effective for those with lower mindfulness at baseline. There was significant decrease in students’ internalising and externalising problems after mindfulness training, particularly internalising problems.     

Effects of Rural and Urban Population Dynamics and National Development on Deforestation in Less‐Developed Countries, 1990–2000*

While prior research and theorization establish connections between population growth and environmental degradation, there is a relative paucity of research on what particular aspects of population dynamics are most closely associated with specific types of degradation. Considering all less‐developed countries for which data are available, using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression we generate quantitative, cross‐national models for rates of deforestation in the last decade of the twentieth century. The opposite effects of rural and urban population dynamics are of particular concern. While both influence deforestation rates, the effects of rural population change tend to be more profound and more robust. We discuss these findings in light of theoretical work about circular migration and rural encroachment. In addition, we examine the impact of economic development on deforestation while controlling for political and social welfare variables. Findings suggest a trend toward rapidly increasing rates of deforestation in the least‐developed countries. We conclude with a discussion of how rural–urban population dynamics, in combination with other aspects of national development, affect the natural environment, particularly in light of an increasingly interconnected world economy.     

Understanding intimate partner violence against women in the rural South

Most U.S. intimate partner violence (IPV) research to date has been limited to women residing in urban areas, with the small body of research focusing on rural populations being primarily qualitative. In this case-control study of Southern rural women, while many factors are consistent with those found in urban settings, unlike findings elsewhere, IPV risk appears to increase with age, and race showed no increased risk. Furthermore, in rural areas where guns are more acceptable than in other parts of the United States, partners of IPV victims are considerably more likely to carry weapons than partners of nonabused women. Given the geographic limitations to police and medical response to severe IPV in a rural setting, an improved understanding of IPV risk among this population can aid health care providers in ascertaining risk before it escalates further.     

Animal behavior in urban ecosystems: Modifications due to human-induced stress

Wildlife-human interactions are increasing in prevalence as urban sprawl continues to encroach into rural areas. Once considered to be unsuitable habitat for most wildlife species, urban/suburban areas now host an array of wildlife populations, many of which were previously restricted to rural or pristine habitats. The presence of some wildlife species in close proximity to dense human populations can create conflict, forcing resource managers to address issues relating to urban wildlife. However, evidence suggests that wildlife residing in urban areas may not exhibit the same life history traits as their rural counterparts because of adaptation to human-induced stresses. This creates difficulty for biologists or managers that must address problems associated with urban wildlife. Population control or mitigation efforts aimed at urban wildlife require detailed knowledge of the habits of wildlife populations in urban areas. This paper describes the history of wildlife in urban areas, provides examples of wildlife populations that have modified their behavior as an adaptation to urban stresses, and discusses the challenges that resource managers face when dealing with urban wildlife.     

Reproduction, juvenile survival and retention in an urban fox squirrel population

Fox squirrels in an urban environment had an average litter size of 2.83 (95% CI 2.5, 3.16) which was similar to rural populations. Nonetheless, the proportion of squirrels reproductively active during the summer/fall breeding season (0.73) and annually (spring + summer/fall) was higher (1.23) than previously recorded for non-manipulated rural populations. The average monthly survival rate () of urban juvenile fox squirrels during the first 14 weeks of life was higher than reported for adult populations in the area. High rates of reproduction and juvenile survival yielded high juvenile to adult ratios (juveniles/adults) averaging 0.44. Retention of juveniles after 6 months (15%) was significantly less (χ ² = 7.24, p = 0.0071) than adults/subadults (40%). Results suggest that the urban environment provides quality habitat for fox squirrels and fox squirrels in urban environments have the potential to be a source population for surrounding suburban and rural environments.     

Rural Area Agencies on aging: An overview of activities and policy issues

This article presents an overview of the nature and service activities of rural Area Agencies (AAAs) with data from a recently completed national survey. Compared to their urban counterparts rural AAAs serve much larger, more sparsely populated areas with poorer and older elderly populations; have much smaller budgets and staffs; and support fewer services. This leads to a clear rural disadvantage in resources and services for the elderly. Policy makers need to examine and address factors identified as associated with this rural-urban inequity including SUA intrastate funding formulas, “rural” service models and training needs, and regulations regarding direct service provision. Important research and policy questions in need of further study are also identified.     

Sociality enhances birds’ capacity to deal with anthropogenic ecosystems

Urban species often adjust their behavior to survive in urban environments, characterized by the proximity of humans, habitat fragmentation and heterogeneous, fluctuating ecological resources. Several hypotheses have been put forth to explain how species manage living in heterogeneous and complex anthropogenic habitats. The ability of individuals or species to beneficially modify their behaviors in response to changes in the environment has indeed been alternatively explained based on phylogenetic, adaptive, and ontogenic arguments. In this study we investigated the role of sociality as a driver of behavioural flexibility in urban birds. Sociality can be defined as the tendency to associate with conspecifics or form a group and may influence a species’ ability to survive in an urban ecosystem to the extent that it represents advantages to species or individuals in terms of resource exploitation, fitness, and predation risk-avoidance. Given the potential benefits of sociality we hypothesized that sociality is a further characteristic that may explain how species have successfully expanded their range into urbanized areas. Based on this hypothesis, we predicted that pigeons (Columba livia) will show higher behavioural flexibility when in larger groups, whatever their genetic background and living-circumstances. Using pigeons as a model system, we compared 27 groups in France and Italy composed of four different genetic strains and varying living-conditions: free-living feral pigeons in urban areas, free-living domestic pigeons at the property of a local breeder captive, feral pigeons in a French ecological field station, captive domestic pigeons in an Italian ecological station. We tested two standardized behavioral measures of behavioural flexibility: thresholds for fear or neophobia and rates of problem solving. We found that group number affects neophobia and to a lesser extent problem-solving, suggesting that sociality is a factor enhancing birds’ faculties to establish in and cope with heterogeneous urban environments. We consider this hypothesis here as compatible and complementary to existing hypotheses on species’ adaptation to urban ecosystems.     

The impact of rapid population growth,expanding urbanisation,and other factors on development in sub-Saharan Africa: the contrasting responses of Tanzania and Kenya

This article analyzes the impact of the twin factors of rapid population growth and expanding urbanization on social and economic development in sub-Saharan Africa and compares policies that have been developed in Tanzania and Kenya in response to these factors. The principal consequences of overpopulation and overurbanization have been economic stagnation and physical and cultural malaise in urban population centers. Between 1960-80, per capita incomes in 19 countries of sub-Saharan Africa grew by less than 1%/year and 15 countries recorded a negative rate of growth in per capita income during the 1970s. Urban populations have increased at at overall rate of 6%/year as sub-Saharan Africans have migrated to cities in search of employment. Few national governments in the region have formulated longterm strategies to deal effectively with this double-faceted development constraint or have integrated new urban populations into the national economy. tanzania's development strategy is focused on the goals of socialism, rural development, and self-reliance. Urban development has remained a residual item in Tanzania's national development process, despite the fact that the urban population increased from 5.7% of the total population in 1967 to 12.7% in 1978 and is projected to comprise 24.7% by the year 2000. In contrast, Kenya, whose proportion of urban population increased from 9% to 15% between 1962 and 1979, has pursued an urban-focused development strategy. The strong urban-rural linkages of the economy have focused migration to the secondary towns. The national development plan includes urban spatial, employment, and investment policies. Although this plan constitutes a good basis for future planning, the magnitude of the urban problem is beyond the capabilities of the central government and requires the development of local capabilities.     

Variations in the conceptualization and measurement of rurality: Conflicting findings on the elderly widowed

This paper argues that the nature of any observed distinctions between the rural and urban aged are a function of whether rurality is conceptualized in ecological or socio-cultural terms. Four measures of rurality are contrasted. Two measures, based primarily on ecological criteria, define rurality in terms of (1) current residence, and (2) duration of community residence. Two additional measures, based primarily on socio-cultural criteria, define rurality in terms of (3) place of residence at age 16, and (4) a self-definition as rural. While different kinds of rural populations are identified by each measure, a self-definition of rurality seems to capture proportionally more of those who are also rural on the other criteria. However, this is not the case when urbanity is defined using the same criteria. The practice of classifying elderly populations as urban or rural based on current residence alone identifies ‘urban’ individuals who are in fact largely urban on both ecological and socio-cultural criteria; a significant proportion of those identified as rural by ecological criteria do not, however, fit the socio-cultural definition. The implications of these findings are discussed in reference to a sample of 151 elderly widowed men and women. Very different patterns of variability between rural and urban widowed elderly emerge, depending on which definition of rurality is used.     

Suicide ideation among a stratified sample of rural and urban adolescents

This study examined factors associated with sucidal ideation among a stratified sample of rural and urban adolescents. Data was collected on 1,728 eighth and tenth grade southern Nevada students from 23 schools. No overall differences were found between rural and urban adolescents, although results did indicate that grade, gender, and school achievement variations exist between rural and urban student populations. Implications for social workers and other youth service providers are discussed.     

Determining the effect of urbanization on generalist butterfly species diversity in butterfly gardens

This study investigates the effects of urbanization on local butterfly populations and the role of butterfly gardens in preserving regional butterfly diversity. Data are from 135 butterfly gardens of varying size, location, and number of blooming plants in the Washington DC metropolitan area observed during 2001 and 2002. We investigated the species diversity for comparable gardens in rural, suburban, and urban locations to determine whether the landscape matrix surrounding otherwise suitable habitat affects the diversity found in the habitat. We hypothesized that, once factors such as garden size and number of blooming plant species were taken into account, butterfly diversity for 12 generalist species would decrease as urbanization increased. We found that there were systematic decreases (with one exception) in diversity from rural to suburban to urban gardens only for medium-sized gardens (0.10 to 0.20 ha) with one to ten types of blooming plants, and large gardens (>0.20 ha) with over 20 types of blooming plants. Gardens of other sizes or plant communities showed some decreases in diversity from rural to suburban to urban sites, but these differences were not consistent across the urban/rural gradient. Results of this study indicate that local butterfly diversity is negatively affected by increasing levels of human population, but that the matrix is just one factor determining generalist species diversity.     

Population growth and rural-urban migration,with special reference to Ghana

While the population of Ghana is expected to double in 25 years at the current rate of increase (approximately 2.5% per annum), the population of urban centers is increasing even faster. The 1970 census shows the urban population growing by 4.8% per annum. This is mainly the result of rural to urban migration and, to a smaller extent, the increase in the number of urban centers from 39 in 1948 to 98 in 1960 to 135 in 1970. In the 1970 census only 57.1% of the population were enumerated in their locality of birth and only 20.9% in a locality other than their place of birth but in the same region. 4.1% were born outside Ghana, mostly in another West African country. 1 striking difference between urban and rural areas is the differing sex ratio of the working population. In rural areas there are 91.0 males aged 15-64 years for every 100 females while in urban areas there are 107.1. Most migration in Africa is for employment and those most likely to migrate are working-age males. Because secondary schools are scarce in rural areas, urban dwellers generally have a higher education level. There are no significant differences between overall labor force participation rates for females. The nationwide participation rate was 38.9% for both males and females (males 43.8%, females 34.1%); in urban areas the total was 40.0% (males 46.3%, females 33.7%) and in rural areas 38.5% (males 42.7%, females 34.3%). Ghanaian women have traditionally occupied a prominent place in the labor force. The theory that urban migration is due to urban-rural income disparities is not confirmed by figures. Considering the high amount of unemployment in urban areas, a rural dweller can average as much as a city dweller. In fact, poorly educated migrants are the ones most affected by urban unemployment. A recent study by Kodwo Ewusi considered the impact of many variables on migration; he found depressed social conditions at the place of origin are more compelling motivations than economic factors but that once people decide to migrate, they base their choice of destination primarily on economic opportunities available at that end. Distance bears little relationship to choice of destination. To stem this tide efforts need to be made to increase rural income, provide employment opportunities for those displaced as agriculture becomes more efficient, and to provide for greater amenities in rural areas. Urban unemployment is an ever-increasing problem, accentuated by population growth and migration. Intensive rural development is needed to reverse this trend.