Prior education and entrepreneurial intentions: the differential impact of a wide range of fields of study

Studies on entrepreneurial intentions often neglect the heterogeneity of individuals’ education background. This paper develops an integrated intention-based framework and analyzes the impact of fields of study on entrepreneurial intentions. Based on a sample of 2423 final-year students, enrolled in 32 fields of study, and resorting to logistic estimations, we find that, beside the attitude towards starting a business, fields of study, considered at a highly detailed level, are relevant (direct and indirect) predictors of entrepreneurial intention. We unambiguously show that there is a huge hidden potential for new venture creation in fields of study related to creative and leisure activities (e.g., Arts and humanities, or, more specifically, Literature and linguistics, History and archaeology, Audio-visual techniques and media production, Sports, and Architecture and town planning), Law, and Health (most notably, Pharmacy and Veterinary). Significant differences in the level of intention between students of different fields of study indicate that universities should more extensively focus entrepreneurship education on students in other subject area than business or engineering/technology sciences.     

Should I Text or Call Here? A Situation‐Based Analysis of Drivers’ Perceived Likelihood of Engaging in Mobile Phone Multitasking

This study investigated how situational characteristics typically encountered in the transport system influence drivers’ perceived likelihood of engaging in mobile phone multitasking. The impacts of mobile phone tasks, perceived environmental complexity/risk, and drivers' individual differences were evaluated as relevant individual predictors within the behavioral adaptation framework. An innovative questionnaire, which includes randomized textual and visual scenarios, was administered to collect data from a sample of 447 drivers in South East Queensland‐Australia (66% females; n = 296). The likelihood of engaging in a mobile phone task across various scenarios was modeled by a random parameters ordered probit model. Results indicated that drivers who are female, are frequent users of phones for texting/answering calls, have less favorable attitudes towards safety, and are highly disinhibited were more likely to report stronger intentions of engaging in mobile phone multitasking. However, more years with a valid driving license, self‐efficacy toward self‐regulation in demanding traffic conditions and police enforcement, texting tasks, and demanding traffic conditions were negatively related to self‐reported likelihood of mobile phone multitasking. The unobserved heterogeneity warned of riskier groups among female drivers and participants who need a lot of convincing to believe that multitasking while driving is dangerous. This research concludes that behavioral adaptation theory is a robust framework explaining self‐regulation of distracted drivers.     

中国情景下消费者的伦理购买意向研究——基于TPB视角

本文运用大样本问卷调研法,基于TPB视角重点分析消费者的伦理购买决策机制,旨在考察中国情景下影响消费者伦理购买意向的深层次因素。研究结果发现,行为态度、主观规范与感知行为控制会显著影响消费者的伦理购买行为意向,其中主观规范是购买意向最有影响的预测变量,表明中国情景下消费者在进行伦理购买决策时更倾向于遵从社会规范的影响;进一步感知行为控制不仅直接显著作用于伦理购买意向,还通过行为态度对伦理购买意向产生间接的重要影响,表明在中国情景下如何真正提高消费者伦理购物时的感知行为控制程度是企业实施伦理营销时面临的关键性问题。总体而言,本文结果表明,修正后的计划行为理论对中国情景下消费者的伦理购买意向能够进行有效地解释与预测,说明计划行为理论具有良好的跨文化适应性。最后,本文为中国企业伦理营销战略的实施提供重要建议。     

High-profile employees at universities and their intentions of commercializing research results

When university scientists consider their research results today, an entrepreneurial university wants them to explore more than the options for publication: invention disclosures and patent applications are increasingly becoming of interest as a step into the commercialization process. High-profile employees at universities face both the expectation and the opportunity to follow multiple careers: as scientists but also as drivers of the commercialization process and even as spin-off leaders. Organizational antecedents to such commercialization activities have largely been investigated to help universities design effective incentive systems that stimulate the inventive activity of their employees. However, it remains unclear to which set of incentives high-profile employees respond to. In applying Theory of Planned Behavior, the main contribution of our study is to demonstrate that attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control influence high-profile employee’s intention to disclose an invention as the first step in a commercialization process. More detailed results show which belief factors in turn influence attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control.     

Review of female immigrant entrepreneurship research: Past findings,gaps and ways forward

We conduct a review of the literature on entrepreneurship by females with an ethnic minority background based on immigration to a new country and focus on entrepreneurial resources, entrepreneurial strategies, outcomes, and context. The intersection of gender and ethnicity influences entrepreneurship in specific ways that we discuss. The literature review indicates that particular (human, social, and financial) resources help shape entrepreneurial strategies, which in turn result in particular outcomes at the individual, firm, and societal levels. These factors are influenced by the co-ethnic and host country cultural and institutional contexts that we review. Situating our study in the mixed embeddedness perspective, we organize and synthesize extant research on the business endeavors of female immigrant entrepreneurs and discuss important gaps that provide opportunities for future research. We also address policy and practice implications.     

Entrepreneurship among the Displaced and Dispossessed: Exploring the Limits of Emancipatory Entrepreneuring

This paper explores the links between entrepreneurship, emancipation and gender within the international development arena. Through a longitudinal analysis of a micro‐enterprise development project in which intermediary organizations contract traditional handicrafts from female home‐based producers, we focus on the impact of contracting policies on the ability of the desperately poor to improve their disadvantaged position. Our critical analysis reveals how intermediaries who impose exclusive contracting conditions, supposedly to protect the women's interests, actually constrain the emancipatory potential of the women's entrepreneurial activities. However, such contractual limitations generate collaborative networks enabling the women to challenge these constraints in an effort to assert control over their activities. Accordingly, this paper contributes to contemporary debates concerning the emancipatory potential of entrepreneurship within the context of development. We advance this analysis through a gendered evaluation of the role of intermediary organizations on entrepreneurial emancipation and related empowerment.     

Linking young individuals' capital to investment intentions: Comparing two cultural backgrounds

By integrating the Entrepreneurial Intentionality Model and the Theory of Planned Behaviour, we explored the effects of human, social and financial capital on young individuals' investment intentions in two groups (97 English and 97 Greeks). Results indicated that human capital is directly and indirectly related to investment intentions via, first, subjective norms and, consequently, personal attitudes and perceived behavioural control, while social capital is only indirectly related to investment intentions via perceived behavioural control. In the individualistic group (English), human capital related directly and positively with investment intentions while social capital related indirectly to investment intentions via its positive relationship to subjective norms. With regard to participants from a collectivistic background (Greeks), human capital related indirectly to investment intentions via, first, subjective norms and, consequently, personal attitudes and perceived behavioural control, while social capital related directly and indirectly to investment intentions via perceived behavioural control. Financial capital was only negatively related to investment intentions in the total and Greek sample.     

隐私偏好设置与隐私反馈对移动商务用户行为意愿影响及交互作用的实证研究

随着互联网产业的快速发展，移动服务商能够更便捷地获取用户个人隐私信息，而对隐私信息保护又相对薄弱，从而导致用户越来越感知到个人隐私信息缺乏控制，也进一步影响着用户披露个人信息与使用移动商务的意愿，因而有必要探索新的隐私保护方法，并通过实证研究对其有效性进行验证。基于此，本文以公平理论、计划行为理论为基础，提出了面向移动商务环境的隐私偏好设置及隐私反馈，探究了其对移动商务用户披露个人信息与使用移动商务意愿（下简称行为意愿）的影响作用与机理，并采用PLS-SEM方法进行了实证研究。实证结果表明：所提出的隐私保护方法对用户感知的隐私控制（下简称感知控制）和行为意愿产生显著的直接正向影响，并通过感知控制间接正向影响用户的行为意愿，而隐私偏好设置和隐私反馈对用户行为意愿具有显著的负向交互作用，且隐私反馈对隐私偏好设置具有替代作用。     

Propensity to adopt technological innovations: the impact of personal characteristics and organizational context

This study investigated how personal characteristics and organizational context are associated with strategic decision makers' intentions to adopt technological innovations. Positive significant relationships were found between hospital top managers' intentions to adopt potential innovations and risk propensity, self-efficacy, perceived organizational strategy, perceived information processing capacity, and perceived resource availability. The impact of personal and organizational factors on intentions to adopt, implications of our results, and future research directions are discussed.     

The influences of gender and grade on perceived work stress and job satisfaction in white collar employees

A self-completion questionnaire survey was carried out, resulting in a sample of 675 white collar public sector employees. The survey examined the frequency of occurrence of work-based stressors and perceived control, and included a general measure of job satisfaction. The results revealed that higher levels of job satisfaction were reported by employees in higher grades. It was also observed that higher grades perceived more control within their working environment. No gender differenccs were found concerning reported stress problems, although significant differences were observed across grades in relation to role differentiation. Multivariate analyses revealed that grade effects were largely accounted for by differences in perceived control. Perceived control, role-based and organizational stressors as well as gender were the strongest contributors in predicting reported job satisfaction.     

基于计划行为理论的信用卡使用意向分析及其营销策略研究

在计划行为理论的基础上,使用结构方程模型等数理统计方法,探析了消费者信用卡使用意向的影响因素,建构了消费者信用卡使用意向模型。研究表明,计划行为理论中信用卡态度和知觉行为控制变量对消费者信用卡使用意向有重要影响。此外,研究还进一步将消费者信用卡态度区分为便利性态度、金钱与信用态度,实证研究显示便利性态度对信用卡使用意向有重要影响,并且这种区分是合理的和必要的。     

Cognitive approaches to new venture creation

Cognitive processes play a critical role in the formation of new ventures. Moreover, the effects of managerial cognition are likely to be more direct and immediate in new venture settings than in the context of larger, more established organizations. For these reasons, the theories and methods of managerial and organizational cognition can provide insight into the process of new venture creation. This paper reviews recent studies that take a cognitive approach to new venture creation and categorizes them according to the stage of new venture creation with which they are concerned. Key issues discussed include the formation of entrepreneurial intentions, the sensemaking processes of scanning, interpretation and action, the use of schema and heuristics in decision-making and the phenomenon of entrepreneurial alertness. Several preliminary research conclusions are drawn, and the implications of these findings for the practice of entrepreneurship are considered. Finally, several promising avenues for future research are explored.     

Creative entrepreneurs’ creativity,opportunity recognition,and career success: Is resource availability a double-edged sword?

At the heart of the entrepreneurial process in creative industries are entrepreneurial creativity and opportunity recognition, which influence entrepreneurs’ ability to create new ventures or significantly improve the position of an existing business. Recent entrepreneurship research has suggested that resource availability represents a double-edged sword, simultaneously facilitating and impeding new venture outcomes, while little research has explored how entrepreneurial creativity, opportunity recognition, and resource availability jointly affect entrepreneurial career success. To address the theoretical gap, this paper examines the moderating role of resource availability in the relationship between entrepreneurial creativity, opportunity recognition and career success of creative entrepreneurs.To reflect the career success perceived by business founders in creative industries, five indicators of entrepreneurial success are examined, including career achievement, social reputation, entrepreneurial happiness, capability enhancement, and financial satisfaction. Hierarchical regression analysis empirically examines a sample of 296 entrepreneurs in creative industries. Results suggest that entrepreneurial creativity and opportunity recognition are positively related to entrepreneurial career success. We also find that resource availability generally strengthens the effect of entrepreneurial creativity and opportunity recognition on entrepreneur-perceived career success. Nevertheless, the relationship between opportunity recognition and financial satisfaction is found to be weakened by entrepreneurs’ resource availability. Integrating the theory of entrepreneurial effectuation and resource dependence theory, our findings indicate that entrepreneurial bricolage is crucial for creative entrepreneurship.     

Why and when female directors are less engaged in their board duties: An interface perspective

Female representation on boards is perhaps one of the most studied topics in board-governance research. At the same time, much is unknown about female directors' task engagement within boards. Drawing from psychological theory on societal gender beliefs, our study tests whether the impact of director gender on supervisory task engagement hinges on status dynamics in two relational interfaces: the director–board interface and the director–CEO interface. According to this perspective, female directors show less task engagement because gender is a diffuse status cue that creates status differentiation within the director–board interface. Multi-source board survey data (n = 61 boards, n = 315 directors) confirms that, within the confines of the boardroom, female directors do, indeed, receive lower-status ratings than male directors. This effect is weaker when boards have a female chair. Furthermore, lower status explains perceived lower task engagement of female directors, but this link critically hinges on the CEO–director interface. The impact of status differences is more pronounced when directors intersect with a relatively dominant CEO. All in all, the results demonstrate that relational interfaces play a key role for female directors’ task engagement in their board duties.     

Peer effects and intentional entrepreneurial behaviour: A systematic literature review and research agenda

What role peers play in individuals’ decisions to become entrepreneurs and to what extent peer effects play a role in influencing behaviours at the various stages of business venturing are important questions for scholars and policymakers. This systematic review takes stock of the recent additions to the literature around the phenomenon of peer influence in entrepreneurship. The review identified 2894 documents which were then narrowed down through three consecutive filtering stages. We thematically analysed the final sample of 27 empirical studies that shed light on how individual peers influence the process and outcomes of these individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions and behaviour, allowing for critical analysis. We propose a conceptual schema of social influence that occurs in interactions among entrepreneurial individuals within business venturing and across the three stages of pre-formation, formation and growth. Our framework reconciles the conceptual classification around discovering, evaluating and exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities with the mechanisms of social influence affecting entrepreneurial behaviours. Grounded in the findings of the literature review, this framework synthesizes peer influence in entrepreneurship with the tripartite distinction of the behavioural motives recognized in contemporary theories of social influence. We suggest promising directions for further research on how interactions with peers might affect individuals’ entrepreneurial behaviours.     

Hostile media perceptions and consumption of genetically modified and organic foods: Examining the mediating role of risk-benefit assessments

Drawing upon the hostile media effect, this study examined how perceived media bias in covering genetically modified (GM) food influences individuals’ risk–benefit assessments of it and their food consumption behaviors. The results of a nationally representative survey (N = 1364) showed that individuals seeing media coverage as more biased in favor of GM food perceived it as more hazardous, which was related to a higher proportion of organic food consumption in their diets. In contrast, perceived media coverage as less slanted toward GM food was associated with more benefit perceptions of it, thereby predicting its higher proportion in individuals’ diets. More importantly, the indirect effect of perceived media bias on GM food consumption through benefit perceptions was more pronounced among males than females. The findings of this study not only provide empirical evidence of the perceptual and behavioral outcomes of hostile media perceptions, but also offer valuable insights for journalists and education practitioners to improve public understanding of emerging food technologies.     

WHAT DETERMINES ENTREPRENEURIAL CLUSTERS?

We contrast two potential explanations of the substantial differences in entrepreneurial activity observed across geographical areas: entry costs and external effects. We extend the Lucas model of entrepreneurship to allow for heterogeneous entry costs and for externalities that shift the distribution of entrepreneurial talents. We show that these assumptions have opposite predictions on the relation between entrepreneurial activity and firm‐level TFP: with different entry costs, in areas with more entrepreneurs firms' average productivity should be lower; with heterogeneous external effects it should be higher. We test these implications on a sample of Italian firms and unambiguously reject the entry costs explanation in favor of the externalities explanation. We also investigate the sources of external effects, finding robust evidence that learning externalities are an important determinant of cross‐sectional differences in entrepreneurial activity.     

Relationship marketing: Its key role in entrepreneurship

The authors argue that relationship marketing can readily be adopted by a small entrepreneurial business but it will need to be adapted to the entrepreneurial environment into which it is introduced. Results from initial research suggest that entrepreneurial enterprises employ relationship marketing more effectively than less entrepreneurial organisations and they derive commercial benefits such as higher growth rates and fewer customer defections. The authors argue that entrepreneurship can be learned and so less entrepreneurial firms have the potential to learn from more successful entrepreneurs. They offer some specific recommendations but they recognise that the task is not easy because the SME has to create an internal culture that is capable of both embracing relationship marketing and being alert to opportunity.     

基于内容分析法的国内外学者创业动机研究

采用内容分析法,研究了1988~2010年间国内外有关学者创业动机的文献,从个人动机、科研动机、外在动机3个方面探讨学者创业的动机。研究结果发现,学者创业的主要动机来自于获得创业财富的预期;学者们也很重视运用技术于实践;不同国家和地区的学者创业动机存在差异。     

Risk Perceptions,General Environmental Beliefs,and Willingness to Address Climate Change

The research reported here examines the relationship between risk perceptions and willingness to address climate change. The data are a national sample of 1225 mail surveys that include measures of risk perceptions and knowledge tied to climate change, support for voluntary and government actions to address the problem, general environmental beliefs, and demographic variables. Risk perceptions matter in predicting behavioral intentions. Risk perceptions are not a surrogate for general environmental beliefs, but have their own power to account for behavioral intentions. There are four secondary conclusions. First, behavioral intentions regarding climate change are complex and intriguing. People are neither nonbelievers who will take no initiatives themselves and oppose all government efforts, nor are they believers who promise both to make personal efforts and to vote for every government proposal that promises to address climate change. Second, there are separate demographic sources for voluntary actions compared with voting intentions. Third, recognizing the causes of global warming is a powerful predictor of behavioral intentions independent from believing that climate change will happen and have bad consequences. Finally, the success of the risk perception variables to account for behavioral intentions should encourage greater attention to risk perceptions as independent variables. Risk perceptions and knowledge, however, share the stage with general environmental beliefs and demographic characteristics. Although related, risk perceptions, knowledge, and general environmental beliefs are somewhat independent predictors of behavioral intentions.