生育率下降与经济发展内生性要素的形成──兼论中国人力资本投资供给的制度性短缺

贝克尔、墨菲和塔玛拉在１９９０年发表的题为“人力资本、生育率与经济增长”的论文中建立了一个“两部门模型”，提出低生育率和较高的人力资本积累率是摆脱马尔萨斯均衡陷阱、进入经济持续发展轨道的必要条件的论断。我国人口的生育率在过去的２０多年中经历了迅速的转变，并达到了较低的水平，但是由于我国的教育，特别是高等教育制度的改革相对落后，造成了我国人力资本投资供给的制度性障碍，进而使我国生育率下降与经济发展，内生性变量──人力资本的积累之词的联系出现了断裂。因此，彻底消除我国人力资本投资的制度性障碍，才能从根本上奠定我国经济持续发展的人才基础和人口环境。     

劳动力有限供给条件下的二元经济转化探索

一个国家或地区农业劳动力由无限供给向稀缺转化过程中通常存在一个有限供给阶段,但古典二元经济学家的劳动力无限供给向稀缺转化理论未明确提出劳动力有限供给,导致学界在讨论二元经济转化过程中的刘易斯拐点时,出现一些争论。在研究二元经济转化路径时,又假定吸纳农业劳动力的现代部门主要将工资作为成本,通过低工资增加利润,吸纳农业劳动力,但长期低工资会造成消费不足、劳动者无力进行人力资本投资、劳资关系紧张等问题。因此,文章在界定劳动力有限供给理论内涵的基础上,分析中国农业劳动力有限供给出现时点、无限到有限过渡期、有限供给阶段。文章建议,在中国高质量创新发展与农业劳动力有限供给向稀缺转化（刘易斯第二转折点实现）中,推进中小微企业使用总体报酬,激励吸纳的农业劳动力提供高质量的创新劳动,实现劳动者、企业与二元经济转化共赢。     

劳动力流动对人力资本形成与配置的影响

改革开放以后,我国劳动力流动的迅速增加,对人力资本的形成与配置产生了深刻的影响。劳动力流动不仅有利于促进人力资本的形成与优化配置,而且有利于提高欠发达地区对人力资本的重视程度;与此同时,劳动力流动也加剧了企业之间对人力资本的竞争,并以此促动了企业的用工制度改革。但是,劳动力的不均衡流动所带来的负面影响也是不容忽视的,它造成了地区间人力资本的巨大差异及一定程度的人才浪费,使企业面临人力资本投资成本增加与人力资本流失的矛盾。而对这些问题,不仅应该在政策方面进一步放宽并取消对劳动力流动的限制,而且应该从各个层面与角度重视企业对人力资本的培育。     

建设人口均衡型社会:条件、问题及对策

在建设资源节约、环境友好型社会的进程中,人口的均衡发展是一个关键。自上世纪70年代初开始的计划生育政策,加速了我国人口生育率下降,有效地控制了人口过快增长,促进了经济增长与人口增长的协调发展。但是,从1990年代我国进入低生育率开始已有20来年,长期的低生育率的人口非均衡发展下将产生了更为复杂的人口现象,引发了人口规模与结构、劳动供给与需求、人口流动与区域发展等之间的失衡和矛盾,成为制约未来我国经济与社会发展的人口难题,破解这些人口难题是建设人口均衡型社会的应有之意。     

四川省生育率转变与计划生育政策的人口自效应评估

生育率转变是人口转变的重要标志之一。生育率转变的原因及由此产生的人口效应一直为人们所关注。文章首先利用面板数据模型分析出经济发展水平与总和生育率水平间的对应关系,然后通过设置不同的生育水平方案,利用PADIS-INT人口预测软件,比较分析无计划生育条件下和现实条件下,四川省生育率转变与人口规模、年龄结构变动的逻辑关系。研究表明:生育率的快速转变使得四川省30多年来总人口规模少增加4020万人,同时也使劳动力的总负担得到减轻;但生育率的快速转变也加快了人口老龄化速度,为今后的"人口长期均衡发展"战略提出了严峻的挑战。     

基于人力资本投资的劳动力迁移模型

劳动力的迁移行为作为人力资本投资的一种形式 ,同样牵涉到成本和收益问题。文章首先介绍了基于人力资本投资的劳动力迁移模型 ,并针对模型列出了模型中存在的问题。在此基础上 ,作者提出模型中应考虑的个体特征 ,同时还综合了到其他学者的研究观点。文章结论是 ,人力资本投资模型的研究仍旧从劳动供给方出发 ,所以它仍属于供给类劳动力迁移模型 ,最终在研究个体劳动力迁移模型中 ,人力资本投资模型可以构成一个有用的组织分析框架。     

余命延长条件下养老保险制度选择的劳动力供给质量效用分析

由现收现付制向基金积累制转变的改革潮流是缓解人口老龄化对已有养老保险制度冲击的意愿体现。基金积累制的精算平衡解决了养老保险制度收不抵支的问题,却未能缓解宏观层面的长寿风险和微观层面的制度替代率下降,若考虑养老保险制度对劳动力供给质量的影响,这一变革潮流的合理性就更需斟酌了。本文选用包含人力资本投资决策的世代交替模型和内生经济增长模型,在余命延长条件下分析基金积累制、名义账户制、现收现付制等养老保险制度类型对理性个体人力资本投资决策的影响,进而分析其对单个劳动力素质和整体劳动力供给质量结构的作用。研究结果显示,在人口老龄化背景下,基金积累制和名义账户制可提高技术工人占比,优化劳动力供给质量结构;收入关联的现收现付制不仅有助于提高技术工人占比,还可以进一步提高技术工人的人力资本存量,也就是单个劳动力素质和整体劳动力供给质量结构均得到提高;与此同时,稳态经济增速取决于技术工人占比及其人力资本存量,这显示人口老龄化对经济增长有积极作用,收入关联的现收现付制优于其他养老保险制度,但由于非技术工人的单位养老金缴费更多,它不是精算公平的。研究结论从劳动力供给质量提升、经济增长的视角为养老保险制度结构调整提供新的依据。     

人口稀释效应对经济增长异质性的影响——基于人力资本积累、R&D传导的机理分析

将人口增长“稀释效应”嵌入一个四部门水平创新框架,提出一个同时内生化个体经济行为、R&D技术进步与人力资本积累的内生增长模型,推导并刻画了经济收敛于BGP均衡及影响经济增长率的因素,为解释人口增长对经济增长产生不确定影响的“正负符号之争”提供了微观基础分析。边际贡献在于:修正设定知识积累存在非规模效应且人力资本积累存在“稀释效应”,放宽对参数的上限或正负进行先验设定。得出结论:人口增长产生负向“稀释效应”与正向“思想效应”是影响经济增长的微观传导路径,正负效应共同作用门槛值大小的不同决定人口增长与经济增长呈非单调异质性不确定影响,进一步分析了稀释效应与门槛值之间的内在关联,数值模拟量化了参数效应。     

新世纪初安徽省劳动力供给趋势及相关政策选择

新世纪初(2001-2010年),安徽省劳动力市场将主要表现为一种不均衡的状态,即安徽省自身劳动力供给与有效劳动力供给过剩,同时,劳动力供给结构与劳动力需求结构存在差异。本文通过对新世纪初安徽省劳动适龄人口、在校学生规模、外来劳动力人口、迁移人口以及老年就业人口发展状况的分析,预测新世纪初安徽省劳动力供给发展趋势。最后,在此基础上探讨了未来安徽省劳动力供给方面的就业政策选择。     

公共服务、人口再配置与城市生产率

新型城镇化的实施促进了公共服务的补偿式供给和地方政府的标尺竞争,由此形成的城市间人口再配置会通过人口与劳动力集聚的“规模效应”和人力资本导入的“结构效应”对城市生产率产生影响。文章从供给端的公共服务能力与结构、需求端的公共服务可及性角度,分析并检验公共服务通过人口再配置对城市生产率的作用机制与影响。对2010～2019年282个城市面板数据的实证检验表明：（1）公共服务供给能力与城市生产率呈倒U形关系,且通过人口再配置发挥作用;（2）在公共服务供给结构方面,发展提升型公共服务对城市生产率的影响比基础保障型更大,且更依赖于人口再配置的中介作用;（3）在公共服务可及性方面,人力资本增加会部分抑制人口再配置的作用;（4）对空间异质性的分析发现,不同城市群的规律特征不完全一致,公共服务通过人口再配置对城市发展系统的动态影响会最终反映在城市生产率的变化上,而作为城市生产率优势形成中“迁移选择”的能动因素,人力资本积累的直接贡献仅体现在领先城市群中。     

The old age security hypothesis and optimal population growth

The old age security approach is used to study the relationship between the rate of growth of the population and capital accumulation, within a Samuelson-Diamond overlapping generations framework. It is shown that a decentralized economy will fail, in general, to achieve the Pareto optimal path. However, a pay-as-you-go social security scheme in which the old get transfers which are proportional to the number of their children may restore optimality. On the other hand, child support systems or subsidies to capital can guarantee the optimal capital: labor ratio, but not the optimal population growth rate, while a lump sum social security system can guarantee the optimal population growth rate, but not the optimal capital: labor ratio. Finally, in a monetary economy any policy aimed at correcting the interest rate will restore full optimality.An earlier version of this paper was written during a visit to the University of California, San Diego. The paper benefited from the comments of two referees.     

中国劳动力供求关系形势及未来变化趋势研究——兼对中国劳动市场刘易斯拐点的认识和判断

通过对我国当前的劳动力供求关系从理论到实践进行分析,可以判断目前刘易斯拐点还没有真正到来。随着中国经济的持续增长,劳动需求将会不断增加,而持续的低生育率将会导致未来劳动供给减少。为了对未来劳动供需关系有一个较为客观的判定,采用生产函数法,设计高低两个未来经济增长速度方案,在给定经济增长速度下采用永续盘存法计算未来资本存量的增长,结合对TFP给出相应假设,测算得到未来劳动力的需求。比较已有的劳动供给预测结果,即可预测我国未来劳动力供求的第一个刘易斯拐点将在2015~2020年前后出现。因此我国未来宏观经济发展应该适应未来劳动供求关系的变动。     

Age structure,education, and the transmission of technical change

The significance of deviations from exponential population growth to economic development requires the construction of growth models that explicitly recognize demographic forces as a potential source of nonstationarities. This paper uses an overlapping generations approach to analyze the impact of population aging on technological innovations in the production process. Specifically, it is assumed that a newly invented technology can be used only if the production unit engages human labor that has been trained for this task (labor-embodied technical change). In a model of overlapping generations 1-sector optimal growth, there are 3 basic components: population, education and labor, and production and investment. An individual who has been in school continuously from the time of birth embodies, according to this model, the most up-to-date form of human capital. When the population growth rate is high, technological innovations are achieved largely through the constant influx of recently educated young people into the labor force. However, when population declines lead to a slowing down of this influx, increased adult education is necessary to stimulate the continued introduction of innovations into the productive process. The form of the optimality conditions, the comparative statistics properties, and the form of the nonstationary optimal economic growth path in this model are similar to those in the Van Imhoff model of homogeneous human capital.     

Population growth and social security financing

By allowing the population growth to be flexible, this paper analyzes the effect of a tax reform that involves an introduction of consumption taxation for social security financing. It is found that population growth and labor supply play an important role in determining the effect of the tax reform. If population growth and labor supply are exogenous, then an introduction of a consumption tax for social security financing, with the payroll tax rate being endogenous, decreases the interest rate and increases capital accumulation. However, if population growth and labor supply are endogenous, then an introduction of a consumption tax for social security financing increases the interest rate and reduces capital accumulation. Received: 26 February 2001/Accepted: 26 August 2001     

城乡劳动力流动与迁移回报率

本文从微观主体人力资本投资的角度来理解中国农村劳动力流动现象。提出应该将迁移作为一种投资方式单独进行考察。通过讨论迁移的预期成本和收益,发现与教育投资相比,迁移能得到较高的回报率,迁移回报率是吸引农村劳动力选择迁移流动到城市的重要因素。由此得出结论：农村劳动力向城市的迁移是一种理性选择的人力资本投资方式。要改变中国二十年来农村劳动力以低教育水平、低收入水平为特征的循环流动。必须尽快改善农村的人力资本投资环境。特别是教育环境．     

Endogenous fertility and human capital in a Schumpeterian growth model

This study develops a scale-invariant Schumpeterian growth model with endogenous fertility and human capital accumulation. The model features two engines of long-run economic growth: R&D-based innovation and human capital accumulation. One novelty of this study is endogenous fertility, which negatively affects the growth rate of human capital. Given this growth-theoretic framework, we characterize the dynamics of the model and derive comparative statics of the equilibrium growth rates with respect to structural parameters. As for policy implications, we analyze how patent policy affects economic growth through technological progress, human capital accumulation, and endogenous fertility. In summary, we find that strengthening patent protection has (a) a positive effect on technological progress, (b) a negative effect on human capital accumulation through a higher rate of fertility, and (c) an ambiguous overall effect on economic growth.     

Banking on fewer children: financial intermediation,fertility and economic development

This paper shows that financial intermediation can influence fertility and labor allocation decisions by raising market wages. The increase in wages induces some households to abandon “traditional” labor intensive methods of production managed at the household level and supply labor to “modern” sector firms. Since it is optimal for households in the modern sector to have fewer children, the labor allocation decision leads to lower national fertility. A panel VAR using financial intermediation, fertility and industrial employment share data in 87 countries is estimated. The empirical results show that the data are consistent with the theoretical predictions. Received: 20 October 1997/Accepted: 31 August 1998     

Some macroeconomic aspects of global population aging

Across the demographic transition, declining mortality followed by declining fertility produces decades of rising support ratios as child dependency falls. These improving support ratios raise per capita consumption, other things equal, but eventually deteriorate as the population ages. Population aging and the forces leading to it can produce not only frightening declines in support ratios but also very substantial increases in productivity and per capita income by raising investment in physical and human capital. Longer life, lower fertility, and population aging all raise the demand for wealth needed to provide for old-age consumption. This leads to increased capital per worker even as aggregate saving rates fall. However, capital per worker may not rise if the increased demand for wealth is satisfied by increased familial or public pension transfers to the elderly. Thus, institutions and policies matter for the consequences of population aging. The accumulation of human capital also varies across the transition. Lower fertility and mortality are associated with higher human capital investment per child, also raising labor productivity. Together, the positive changes due to human and physical capital accumulation will likely outweigh the problems of declining support ratios. We draw on estimates and analyses from the National Transfer Accounts project to illustrate and quantify these points.     

Economic and demographic effects on working women in Latin America

The paper uses historical census data and the latest household surveys to investigate the evolution of female employment in Latin America, the effect of demographic factors on female labor force participation, and the reasons for the observed male-female gap in labor earnings. The findings show that, though women's labor force participation in Latin America has indeed increased despite the adverse economic conditions of the last two decades, marriage and fertility still exercise a large negative effect on women's labor supply. On average in the 15 countries studied, marriage reduces the probability that a woman would work by half, and each child by a further 3–5% These effects result in age-participation profiles that decrease with age although the econometric analysis suggests that, as women get older, they have a ceteris paribus greater probability to seek employment. In all the countries studied women are rewarded less than men and gender differences in human capital characteristics cannot account for the observed earnings differential. The paper discusses the significance of the findings for potential policies to assist women, especially in the areas of education and fertility, and also suggests the direction of further reserarch.The views expressed here are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank and its affiliated organisations.     

从人力资本运营谈促进就业的一种方式

本文从人力资本运营理论出发,对影响人力资本流动的就业歧视进行了解释,同时对劳动力的迁移进行了成本收益分析,指出当前促进就业可以通过建立统一的可自由流动的城乡劳动力市场来解决,并对城乡劳动力市场的互动提出了一些建议。