Gambling and pathological gambling in adolescents

A survey of U.K. secondary school children (aged 11–16 years) was undertaken to enquire into the prevalence of adolescent gambling and pathological gambling on fruit machines, and related behaviours. Sixty-two percent of the children gambled on fruit machines, 17.3% at least weekly and 5.7% pathologically. Pathological fruit machine gambling was correlated with gambling for money on other games, cigarette and alcohol use, video playing, parental gambling, playing alone and an early start (8 years or younger). It was not correlated with age, gender or religion, and only weakly with parental occupation. The implications of the findings for future research and social policy are discussed.The author would like to thank the Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a Research Studentship Grant. The author would also like to thank Henry Lesieur, Ph.D. and reviewers of the Journal of Gambling Studies for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Special thanks to Professor David Dunkerley for his invaluable support of this project.     

Fruit machine addiction in adolescence: A case study

A majority of the research on adolescent fruit machine gambling has been survey type studies concentrating on incidence, demographics and quantitative analysis of motivations, subjective feelings and negative consequences of fruit machine addiction. The data from this study are reported as a case study of an 18 year old former adolescent fruit machine addict with additional information from the addict's mother. The study examines a number of distinct stages and circumstances in the development of the addiction including die discovery of the problem, the motivations to constantly gamble, the role of family distress, loss chasing, excitement and skill in maintenance of problem gambling, in addition to a personal examination of the problem's confrontation and eventual recovery. These personal insights are discussed with relation to the contemporary literature. It is shown that previous speculations on some issues arising from quantitative analysis may have to be re-evaluated in the light of more detailed qualitative accounts such as this study.The author would like to thank the U.K. Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a research studentship, and the Parents of Young Gamblers organization for their help in this research.     

Addiction to fruit machines: A preliminary study among young males

Although most sources treat gambling as an adult phenomenon, adolescent gambling is more widespread than is generally recognized, and in some cases may even be pathological. This paper outlines a preliminary study of eight adolescents addicted to playing and gambling on coin-in-the-slot machines (more commonly known as fruit machines). Factors involved in the onset of fruit machine playing are examined along with their alternative gambling activities and associated problems. The role of skill and excitement components in persistent playing are also discussed.The author would like to thank the United Kingdom Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a research studentship.     

Measuring pathological gambling in children: The case of fruit machines in the U.K.

The alleged incidence of addiction to fruit machine gambling among children in the U.K. has highlighted the need for a measure to define and count pathological gambling in children. The DSM-IV criteria, which are being refined to diagnose pathological gambling in adults, was adapted for use with pre-adult gamblers. The resulting DSM-IV-J criteria were tested using a questionnaire survey on a sample of 467 schoolchildren aged between 11 and 16 years. Those children who were defined as probable pathological gamblers by the DSM-IV-J index were significantly more likely to be involved in behaviours hitherto associated with dependency, than were the control group. DSM-IV-J appears to be a major advance in the discrimination of pathological gambling in children.The author would like to thank the Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a Research Studentship Grant. The author would also like to thank Henry Lesieur Ph.D. and Mark Dickerson Ph.D. for their helpful comments in the design stage of this research.     

The role of subjective mood states in the maintenance of fruit machine gambling behaviour

Explanations involving the etiology of pathological gambling have tended to emphasize psychosocial factors. However, the possibility that psychobiological factors are important should not be ruled out. Two currently researched psychobiological approaches to gambling involve the role of (i) arousal and (ii) depression. A study analyzing the subjective mood variables of 60 gamblers (44 males and 16 females; mean age 23.4 years) using self report measures was carried out in an attempt to identify which mood states are critical to gambling maintenance. Results indicated that regular and pathological gamblers experienced more depressive moods before playing and that regular and pathological gamblers experienced significantly more excitement during gambling than non regular gamblers. These results are discussed in relation to contemporary literature regarding the roles of arousal and depression in the maintenance of gambling behaviour.The author would like to thank the UK Economic and Social Research Council for funding this research through a research studentship. The author would also like to thank Henry Lesieur and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive advice and criticism in the revisions of this paper.     

Video game playing,dependency and delinquency: A question of methodology?

A methodological challenge to Fisher's (1992) study of adolescent fruit machine gamblers was carried out with young video game players. Fisher (1992) described an association between frequency fruit machine playing, dependency and delinquency. Some methodological concerns were considered that might weaken this conclusion, in particular the use of heterogeneous measures that fail to distinguish between variables. As such measures feature elsewhere in contemporary gambling research it was deemed important to examine some of the potential problems that may arise. 183 11–16 year old video game players (152 males; 31 females) were recruited from four amusement arcades to answer a computerised questionnaire. Using an analysis similar to Fisher (1992) her results for adolescent fruit machine use were confirmed. However a separation of key variables and the use of a multiple regression analysis showed that of money spent, time spent and impaired choice, only the first was a significant predictor of delinquency. It is suggested that delinquents have higher disposable incomes to spend on their leisure activities. Video game playing and possibly fruit machine gambling appear to be independently associated with delinquency; in video game playing this association is not mediated by dependency. It was argued that a similar methodology should be used in the UK to re-examine Fisher's (1992) conclusions for children who use gaming machines.The authors wish to thank Timezone Amusement Arcades for the generous use of their centres, Colin Davis for programming the questionnaire and Dr. Sung-Mook Hong for statistical advice.     

Governmental response to juvenile fruit machine gambling in the U.K: Where do we go from here?

The U.K. Gaming Act of 1968 prohibits young people under the age of eighteen years from all commercial gambling except on slot machines, commonly known as fruit machines and officially known as amusements with prizes. The U.K. Government responded to growing public concern, that some children are becoming addicted to this form of gambling and committing crime to fund their play, by directing the Home Office to undertake its own investigation. The researchers found no evidence of an association between the playing of amusement machines, dependency and delinquency. The Home Office study is critically assessed both on its own merit and in the light of research undertaken before and since. Suggestions are made for future sociological research initiatives.The author would like to thank the Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a Research Studentship Grant. The author would also like to thank David Dunkerley and Mark Griffiths for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

“Minnesota slots”: An observational study of pull tab gambling

A study of pull tab gambling in Minnesota was undertaken to describe the state's most popular form of gambling. The study also focused on the detection of any abuses or addictive problems that might be associated with it. Pull tab gambling is similar to slot machine gambling. The game, fundamentals of play, and some of the behaviors of pull tab gamblers are described. Various playing patterns and strategies, pull tab etiquette, the numbers and types of players, amounts of money bet, player's wins and losses, house profits, gambling abuses, behaviors which may indicate problem gambling, and dealer/player relationships are discussed. The study concludes with suggestions to help minimize some of the actual and potential problems and abuses that accompany pull tab gambling.This study was supported by funding from the Minnesota Department of Human Services, Mental Health Division. The information presented here is based on a report (Schaefer & Aasved, 1990) submitted to that agency.The authors would like to thank Drs. Sue Fisher and Mark Griffiths for their helpful suggestions and comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Gambling in children and adolescents

The topic of adolescent gambling is attracting growing interest, but there has still been little controlled or systematic research into the area, and much of what has been written would best be described as “armchair theorizing.” The literature concerning pre-adult gambling behavior falls into three general categories: (a) direct and indirect studies concerning adolescent gambling; (b) studies of the economic socialization of children, and (c) consideration of gambling as play and games as precursors to gambling. This paper presents an overview of the literature examining each of these three categories. Special emphasis is placed upon the playing of fruit machines, as it is this activity which is currently regarded as the biggest problem concerning young gamblers, particularly in the U.K. Recommendations for future research are discussed, particularly for work using a functional/behavioral analysis model to determine the variables which influence how adolescents “learn” to gamble.     

The acquisition,development, and maintenance of fruit machine gambling in adolescents

In the U.K., the major commercial gambling activity in adolescents is the playing of slot machines (commonly known as “fruit machines”). Over the past few years, the negative effects of “fruit machine addiction” have been reported by various helping organizations (e.g. Gamblers Anonymous) and the national press, including allegations of attempted murder, suicide and prostitution as well as a wider incidence of petty crime. Fifty adolescent fruit machine players from a ‘user population’ participated in a face-to-face interview and questionnaire study examining factors in the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Nine adolescent males were deemed to be pathological gamblers as measured by the American Psychiatric Association DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria, and a number of serious consequences were reported including gambling debts, truancy and stealing.     

Irrational thinking among slot machine players

According to the cognitive perspective on gambling, regular gamblers persist in trying to win money at gambling because they hold a set of false beliefs about the nature of gambling, the likelihood of winning, and their own expertise. In order to investigate this claim, twenty seven university students were recruited who played one of three types of games at least twice a week: slot machines, video draw poker, and video amusement games. Subjects played their preferred machines on site (clubs, hotels and amusement arcades) first for at least thirty minutes and then the other two games for a minimum of twenty minutes each. During play, each subject spoke aloud into a microphone describing what he or she was doing or thinking about in the game. It was hypothesised that slot machine players would verbalise more irrational thinking than video poker or video amusement players and that slot machines would elicit more irrational thinking than video poker or video amusement machines. Most importantly, it was hypothesised that slot machine players would exhibit relatively greater amounts of irrational thinking when playing their preferred game. The data supported all three hypotheses. Out of all of the statements made by slot machine players when playing slot machines, 38% were categorised irrational. Furthermore, 80% of the strategic statements made by slot machine players while playing slot machines were categorised as irrational. These results are consistent with earlier work which showed high levels of irrational thinking in artificial gambling games. Together, the results provide support for a cognitive view of the origins of gambling problems.     

Pathological gambling: A comparison of gambling at German-style slot machines and “Classical” gambling

German-style slot machines and related legal issues are described. On the basis of a survey on 437 members of self-help groups (Gamblers Anonymous) in Germany, slot machine gamblers were compared with casino gamblers on such variables as sociodemographic data, gambling behaviour, financial expenditure, emotional experience while gambling, symptoms of pathological gambling, psychosocial consequences and gambling related delinquency. The casino gamblers' gambling behaviour is financially more extensive. There were similarities regarding the emotional intensity of the gambling experience. However the casino gamblers show more pronounced symptoms of pathological gambling and the psychosocial consequences of their gambling behaviour are more severe. In spite of these differences, the data show that for young people slot machines can be as stimulating and therefore as dangerous as casino gambling. The young slot machine gambler runs a similar risk of acquiring a pathological gambling habit as the casino gambler.I would like to thank Dr. Gerhard Meyer for his support and his comments on the first draft of this article which is based on data from a research project led by him.     

A survey of fruit machine gambling in adolescents

Fruit machine gambling among children and young people in the United Kingdom has attracted increasing interest. Since 1985 a number of questionnaire surveys have been conducted attempting to assess the incidence of adolescent fruit machine use and to explore its relationship with delinquency. Data yielded by these surveys have been somewhat inconsistent. Estimates of the prevalence of fruit machine gambling have varied considerably and there is disagreement over its association with deviant behaviour. Researchers have drawn divergent conclusions with different implications for legislation. In the present study, questionnaires were administered to 1,395 11–12 year old and 14–15 year old school children in the Birmingham area. Although for the majority, fruit machine gambling was found to be an infrequent activity involving fairly small amounts of money, a small but significant proportion were found to be gambling often and spending in excess of their income. There was also evidence to suggest that arcades may serve as venues for undesirable activities.This research was funded by the Church of England Children's Society and the authors gratefully acknowledge their support.The authors acknowledge their special thanks to William Wyatt for his continued assistance throughout this project.     

The gambling lifestyle: I. theory

This paper describes the lifestyle model of gambling behavior in which compulsive gambling behavior is conceptualized as a lifestyle characterized by pseudoresponsibility, self-ascension, hypercompetitiveness, and social rule breaking/bending/ twisting. The underlying premise of this theory is that gambling behavior takes on the appearance of a lifestyle when it is viewed by the individual as a viable means of enhancing self-worth, minimizing personal insecurity, and controlling fear. Three primary areas of theoretical and research interest are covered in this paper: (1) the theoretical underpinnings of lifestyle theory; (2) the individual components (conditions, choice, cognition) of a gambling lifestyle; and (3) the developmental progression of a gambling lifestyle.The author would like to thank Henry Lesieur and anonymous reviewers of earlier versions of this paper for their helpful comments. The assertions and opinions contained herein are the private views of the author and should not be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Federal Bureau of Prisons or United States Department of Justice.     

Effects of Mental Imagery on Gambling Behavior

The influence of a brief mental imagery task was examined to determine if imagining engaging in gambling behaviors would satiate the participant on gambling-related reinforcers and subsequently reduce gambling behavior. Thirty-one participants underwent a mental imagery task consisting of either imagining gambling on a slot machine 30 times and placing quarters into a laundry machine 3 times, or imagining gambling on a slot machine 3 times and placing quarters in a laundry machine 30 times. Following the imagery task, participants were allowed to play a real slot machine and stop whenever they wanted to be finished. The results showed that those who imagined playing the slot machine 30 times before actually gambling played significantly fewer trials than those who imagined playing only 3 times. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.     

An exploratory study of gambling cross addictions

A growing body of empirical and theoretical research has concentrated on the overlaps and commonalities among chemical and non-chemical (behavioural) addictions. Pathological gambling has perhaps been the most widely researched behavioural addiction and some of this research has concerned the co-existing links between pathological gambling and alcohol/drug addiction in both the gambling substance abuser and the substance abusing gambler (i.e. cross addiction). This study was of an exploratory nature and attempted to gather information and data regarding gambling cross addictions in the UK. To achieve this, 456 letters were sent to all drug and alcohol helping agencies in England requesting such information. This yielded 210 returns (46% response rate). Results indicated that gambling cross addictions occur in both adults and adolescents and were almost exclusively a male condition. However, it must be noted only just over half of the responding agencies had encountered gambling cross addiction and reasons for this are speculated. Results also indicated the existence of various cross addicted subgroups including an adolescent subgroup who were addicted to fruit machines and abused solvents. Future research ideas are also discussed.A more detailed version of this paper is available from the author on request.     

The relationship between gambling and video-game playing behavior in children and adolescents

It is suggested that commercial video-games (e.g.Nintendo &Sega) and gambling activities have similar attractive features and intermittent reinforcement schedules. This research seeks to examine the nature of this relationship amongst children. One hundred and four children aged 9 to 14, from grades 4, 6, and 8, participated. A questionnaire exploring issues related to video-game playing and gambling behavior in children and adolescents was completed and a computerized blackjack game was individually administered. High frequency video-game players were compared to low frequency video-game players with respect to their gambling performance on the blackjack gambling task as well as on information gathered from the questionnaire. Of particular concern is the risk-taking strategies used by avid video-game players, whether or not children perceive gambling and video-games as involving similar amounts of skill or whether they realize that gambling is primarily a game of chance. The findings, in general, suggest that high frequency video-game players gamble more than low frequency video-game players, report that gambling makes them feel more important, and take greater risks on the blackjack gambling task although no overall differences in success were found. Males exhibited greater risk-taking tendencies on the blackjack task than females. The clinical implications of the findings are addressed.This research was partially supported by a grant from the McGill University Social Science Computer Committee.This is a revision of a paper presented at the Ninth International Conference on Gambling and Risk Taking, Las Vegas, 1994.The authors would like to thank the administration, staff, and students in T.H. Bowes, Prince Charles, Souvenir, Gerald McShane, Our Lady of Pompei, Pierrefonds Comprehensive High School, and Western Laval High School, for their participation and cooperation in this study.     

The lottery player in Cameroon: An exploratory study

We report on an ongoing survey of attitudes toward gambling in the two main cities of Cameroon, Douala and Yaounde. From the data it appears that lottery playing in Cameroon is an answer to the economic crisis that has plagued the country for some years. The results are similar to the ones obtained in previous Canadian, American and other studies in various countries.We thank Alain Njoh Soppo and Martin Tiako, students at the business school of the University of Douala (ESSEC) who collected the data for their Mémoire de fin d'études. We also thank our research assistant, Alain Tremblay, for his help and CIDA, ESSEC and Loto-Québec for their financial help. All remaining errors are solely our own.