Child welfare: A view from Australia

In this article the author presents an analysis of family and child welfare in Australia. The author explores the philosophical approaches underlying the development of child welfare policies. Through a historical perspective the author identifies factors which may have influenced some current child welfare policies and practices. Characteristics of the Australian child are described and selected child welfare services in Australia are discussed.She is Editor ofAustralian Child and Family Welfare Journal. She has worked in child welfare in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.     

Multiple forms of violence and other criminal activities as an indicator of severe child maltreatment

Child protection practice still appears to view child maltreatment as an event largely isolated from other family violence and criminal activities. Research undertaken by the authors suggests that children who have been subjected to the more severe forms of abuse are likely to have come from families who engage in several forms of criminal activity, inside and outside the family, which is often severe in nature. The child who has been maltreated may also become a participant in these activities. The authors recommend that these factors should be investigated in families who have maltreated a child, as the presence or absence of several forms of concurrent violence and other criminal activity may provide an important clue about the welfare of the child. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring the new child protection system in Mainland China: How does it work?

Child protection has become an increasingly important issue in China. Notably however, few studies have explored the Chinese child protection system itself. The purpose of this study is to explore the basic elements of China's child protection system, which was initiated as a pilot program in May 2013, in order to find out how this child protection program works. A content analysis approach was used for this study. A total of 97 related public documents and 11 supplemented interviews were analyzed. We report on the five major categories of basic elements of China's child protection, accompanied by a detailed analysis. Findings show that: (1) The child protection pilot program aims to serve more vulnerable and disadvantaged children rather than abused and neglected children; (2) Although Minors' Protection Office was established to specialize in improving child protection mechanisms and services, a number of agencies bear the primary responsibilities of children protection in practice; (3) A reporting system for reporting suspected child abuse has been advocated in the practice of child protection for the first time; (4) Domestic child protection organizations and institutions play important roles in providing alternative care services. The findings presented in this paper also indicate that although a basic framework for child protection has formed in pilot areas, there are significant barriers to developing and implementing such a system.     

‘From awareness to practice’: children,domestic violence and child welfare

This paper traces the development of social care practice in relation to child witnesses of domestic violence. It suggests that this development has been dominated by subsuming the needs of these children into a child protection process. The paper outlines how this has led to significant (but often unclear) legal and policy initiatives which have failed, as yet, to be translated into practice. The paper argues that there are a number of important reasons why child witnesses of domestic violence should not always be assumed to need the response of a child protection system and that a future practice, legal and policy response should be based on a wider understanding of their needs. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of child care social work in supporting families with children in need and providing protective services—past,present and future

This article examines the way in which child care social work with deprived families has changed and developed since the inception of Children's Departments in 1948. It is argued that between 1948 and 1970 child care social workers enjoyed a fair measure of social support. A variety of reasons are considered for explaining this—specialization, smallness of size, privacy and a consensus about the needs of children. From the early 1970s it is argued that broader societal changes, including a shift away from social solidarity towards individualism, organizational changes and the advent of child abuse as a public concern, resulted in con?icting demands on child care social workers and a subsequent loss of credibility and con?dence. The 1990s have seen a return to emphasis on family support policies which has been further accelerated in the new millennium by New Labour's stated commitment to eliminating child poverty and creating better life opportunities for all children. The implications of these new developments for child care social workers engaged in meeting the needs of children living in highly disadvantaged families are considered. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social conservatism vs social justice: the portrayal of child abuse in the press in Victoria,Australia

This paper explores the role of the media in influencing child protection policies in the Australian state of Victoria. Media coverage of child abuse is seen to have had both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, media campaigns have almost certainly helped to produce more equitable and effective child protection policies and practices. On the other hand, much media coverage (particularly in the tabloid media) has been sensationalist and simplistic. Such coverage arguably has a broader social conservative political agenda, which is to defend traditional institutions and values such as the family, rather than being primarily concerned with identifying necessary reforms to child protection policies and legislation. Attention is drawn here to the local coverage of recent high‐profile child abuse cases and debates within the two daily Melbourne newspapers, The Age and the Herald Sun. Evidence is presented to demonstrate that the tabloid Herald Sun has consistently pursued a broader social conservative agenda based on defending traditional nuclear families from allegedly subversive or deviant groups such as incompetent and/or authoritarian state social workers or, alternatively, individually abusive parents. In contrast, the quality daily The Age has generally eschewed simplistic coverage of individual cases in favour of broader structural reform agendas. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Residential Child Care Agencies as Learning Organisations: Innovation and Learning from Mistakes

The residential child care sector has been scrutinised via numerous inquiries following revelations of abusive and poor practice. These inquiries have made numerous recommendations which involve changes in practice and organisational culture, much of which is congruent with the features of a learning organisation. This article details research which evaluates the extent to which residential child care agencies exhibit the characteristics of a learning organisation. The research involved qualitative and quantitative methods, drawing on the experiences of a range of staff from the residential child care sector within Scotland. The findings revealed that residential child care agencies exhibit many features of a learning organisation, yet the extent to which these characteristics are perceived to exist differs significantly in line with the position staff occupy. Most significant were the findings that many staff do not feel supported to take risks nor encouraged to develop innovative practice; mistakes are not used as learning opportunities and a culture of blame is felt to exist. The implications of this are significant and this article identifies changes necessary to allow residential child care agencies to operate as learning organisations.     

Which fathers are the most involved in taking care of their toddlers in the UK? An investigation of the predictors of paternal involvement

Economic provisioning continues to be the essence of ‘good’ fathering, and the work schedules associated with fathers' employment remain a key factor which shapes their involvement in childcare and domestic work at home. However, the relative impact of fathers' and mothers' employment hours on paternal involvement in childcare is unclear, and little is known about the longer-term impact, that is, whether a work arrangement organised when the child is under a year old has an impact on paternal involvement when the child is aged three. Here we focus on employed couples and explore the association that mothers' and fathers' employment hours have with paternal involvement when their child is three years old. Multivariate analysis using the UK's Millennium Cohort Study reveals that it is the mothers' employment hours when the child is aged three that has the largest association with paternal involvement in childcare at this stage in the child's life, independent of what hours the father works. Furthermore, both fathers' and mothers' employment hours when the child was nine months old have a longitudinal influence on paternal involvement when the child reaches three years old, but it is the hours worked by the mother when the child was aged nine months that has the stronger association with paternal involvement at age three. This suggests that mothers' work schedules are more important than fathers' for fostering greater paternal involvement in both the immediate and longer term.     

An ecological approach to child abuse: a creative use of scientific models in research and practice

Over the past 40 years, considerable progress has been made in our understanding of the aetiology and processes of child abuse. This understanding has been based within two scientific paradigms: the psychodynamic and sociological models. More recently, both strands have been incorporated in a more comprehensive ‘ecological’ paradigm. This presents child abuse as occurring within the context of the child's environment at different, nested levels. The ecological paradigm is currently the most comprehensive model we have for understanding child abuse, providing a systematic framework in which to conduct both research and child protection practice. This paper begins by describing the nature and use of scientific models in both research and practice. Three levels of models are outlined: working models, paradigms and worldviews. The paper then goes on to consider how models are used in our understanding of child abuse, focusing on three major paradigms (sociological, psychodynamic, ecological). The ecological model or paradigm is then described in detail, expounding the four different levels within it. The uses and limitations of the ecological model are discussed in relation to both research and practice. Finally, some practical suggestions are provided for the reader to creatively apply this understanding at a personal and professional level. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Human Rights-Based Child Sponsorship: A Case Study of ActionAid

Many NGOs which focus on development have operated child sponsorship programs due to their effectiveness in raising funds. Existing studies offer a critique of child sponsorship as a de-humanizing marketing strategy and as a targeted service provision. Some NGOs have revised their child sponsorship by integrating it with a rights-based approach (RBA), which emerged rejecting the individual focus and disempowering process of development intervention. The objection of other RBA NGOs to child sponsorship leaves questions about whether child sponsorship can fit an RBA. The aim of the present study is to explore how child sponsorship is perceived and practiced in relation to an RBA in an NGO. The findings from a case study of ActionAid present how an RBA guides ActionAid’s child sponsorship to promote empowerment, campaigning, solidarity and alternatives. This study identifies the potential of an RBA to address problematic marketing and operational practices of child sponsorship as well as remaining issues. The complexity of NGO practices when aligning organizational practices with an RBA warrants further examination.

     

The Changing Association Among Marriage,Work, and Child Poverty in the United States, 1974–2010

Marriage and work have long been central to debates regarding poverty and the family. Although ample research has demonstrated their negative association with child poverty, both marriage and work have undergone major transformations over recent decades. Consequently, it is plausible that their association with child poverty may have also changed. Using 10 waves of U.S. Census Current Population Survey data from the Luxembourg Income Study, this study examined the relationships among marriage, work, and relative measures of child poverty from 1974 to 2010. The results indicated that both marriage and work still decrease the odds of child poverty. However, time interactions showed marriage's negative association with child poverty has declined in magnitude, whereas work's negative association with child poverty has increased in magnitude. These findings underscore the historically varying influence of demographic characteristics for poverty. They also suggest the limitations of overemphasizing marriage and the growing importance of work for reducing child poverty in America.     

Child protection fathers' experiences of childhood,intimate partner violence and parenting

Research on mothers in child protection families has revealed that they often have a history of childhood abuse. Research has also shown that a considerable proportion of child maltreatment co-occurs with intimate partner violence (IPV) towards the mother. However, there is a dearth of research on the childhood histories and IPV victimization experiences of fathers in child protection families. To address these gaps in the literature this exploratory mixed method study of 35 men associated with a parenting program in Australia investigated fathers' childhood experiences, exposure to IPV and concern for their children's safety. Although this study was conducted with a specific group of fathers screened for serious personal problems, the findings suggest that, similar to mothers in child protection families, there are some fathers within typical child protection populations who have histories of childhood abuse and IPV victimization. In addition, many of the fathers in this study tried to protect their children from maltreatment related to the other parent. The main implication of the findings is that child protection fathers who have histories of abuse and IPV victimization should be afforded the same support and assistance as mothers in similar situations.     

Is stability always a good thing? Low-income mothers' experiences with child care transitions

Recent research has drawn attention to the deleterious effects of instability on child development. In particular, child care instability may make it hard for children to form secure attachments to their care providers which may have a negative impact on their development and school readiness. These effects seem to be heightened for low-income children and families. However, there remains a lack of clarity regarding how and why low-income mothers make changes to their child care arrangements. Using ethnographic data from Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three City Study, this study explored 36 low-income mothers' experiences of child care instability and stability and the factors that promoted each. We identified four kinds of child care transitions: planned, averted, failed, and forced. Financial resources, transportation and the availability of care during the hours that mothers work were important for helping mothers find and maintain preferred care arrangements. Our findings have implications for research on child care instability as well as the development of policy and programs to help low-income families secure high quality child care and maintain stable employment.     

Social Services Provided for Physically Abused Children: A Four-Year Follow-Up Study in Sweden

This paper examines contacts that Swedish physically abused children have with the Department of Social Services (DSS) 4 years after a physical abuse incident has been reported to the police. The children’s files have been investigated in an effort to evaluate which child and parent characteristics led DSS to make interventions for the 69 children still in need of assistance, 4 years after the original abuse incident. Intervention by the DSS prior to the reported abuse incident increased the odds 18 times that a child would still receive interventions 4 years after the incident, and the presence of a mentally ill mother increased the odds 11 times.     

Mandatory Reporting and Child Exposure to Domestic Violence: Issues Regarding the Therapeutic Alliance with Couples

Some child welfare legislation have recently expanded the definition of ‘a child in need of protection’ to include child exposure to intimate partner violence. Such legislation places clinicians in the challenging position of determining whether a situation falls under their duty to report. The current paper examines a case example in which there was child exposed to intimate partner violence, the clinician made a report to child welfare authorities and attempted to maintain the therapeutic alliance with the couple in treatment. The couple viewed contacting child welfare authorities as a crisis situation both in their marriage and in their family. Practice principles for clinicians are suggested.     

Child welfare in the United Kingdom

This paper sets the context for the subsequent papers by giving an overview of recent changes in legislation and social policy with respect to child welfare in England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. In England, services for children have been radically affected by the implementation of the Children Act 1989, which has introduced a unifying service to promote the welfare of children at risk, although it leaves a significant gap in supportive provision by excluding child offenders. By contrast, Scotland incorporates juvenile justice within its social work services and has developed a service unique in Europe. As in England and Wales, Scottish services for children are substantially concerned with child protection and the paper gives an exposition of recent developments and proposals for legislative change in this area. The emphasis in Northern Ireland is contained within the context of the ongoing violence which is a day-to-day occurrence within the province. The Irish experience is differently organised from that in other parts of the UK, giving a unique emphasis on voluntary services and a more pronounced use of residential child care. Moves are afoot to introduce amendments to the law which will emphasise working in partnership with parents and separate the disposal of juvenile offenders from other children. The paper ends with a resume of the following papers, linking them to the recent changes in policy and law.     

The Relationship between Knowledge and Child and Caregiver Distress during the Medical Examination for Child Sexual Abuse

When child sexual abuse is suspected, a child sexual abuse–related medical examination is recommended to ensure the child's well-being. While the extant research has sought to identify factors influencing child distress during this examination, only recently have studies began examining variables that may be directly associated with the child or with the medical setting. Knowledge of the child sexual abuse–related medical examination is one medical-related variable that has been implicated in child and caregiver distress during the examination. The current study contributes to the existing literature by investigating associations among examination knowledge in relation to caregiver and child anxiety at the time of a child sexual abuse–related medical examination, taking into account ethnicity, past child abuse, injury to child as result of abuse, and caregiver response to disclosure. Sixty-eight children and their nonoffending caregiver were assessed. Results indicated that understanding of the examination and caregiver response to disclosure were significantly associated with caregiver and child anxiety.     

Defining and strengthening child well-being in child protection

Although the goals of safety and permanency for children continue as critically important mandates in child protection, the field has witnessed an increased focus on child well-being in recent years. Whereas safety and permanency have been well operationalized, child well-being appears to be a much more complex and daunting concept to define and measure. Current federal guidelines require child protective agencies to improve outcomes in the area of child well-being, and although federal regulations offer some direction on interpreting this concept, the definition and operationalization remain vague. As leaders in the field have attempted to provide language by which to talk about and measure child well-being, a number of key frameworks have emerged. In this paper, we present a conceptual map that provides a visual overlay of these existing frameworks that can help guide child protection policy-makers, administrators, and practitioners toward a fuller understanding of the complexities of child well-being. While this conversation on child well-being is not new, this paper aims to add to the national discussion and deepen the understanding and conceptualization of child wellbeing within the context of child protection.