Beyond "homophobia": a social psychological perspective on attitudes toward lesbians and gay men

Homophobia, a term often used to describe hostile reactions to lesbians and gay men, implies a unidimensional construct of attitudes as expressions of irrational fears. This paper argues that a more complex view is needed of the psychology of positive and negative attitudes toward homosexual persons. Based upon a review of previous empirical research, a model is proposed that distinguishes three types of attitudes according to the social psychological function they serve: (1) experiential, categorizing social reality by one's past interactions with homosexual persons; (2) defensive, coping with one's inner conflicts or anxieties by projecting them onto homosexual persons; and (3) symbolic, expressing abstract ideological concepts that are closely linked to one's notion of self and to one's social network and reference groups. Strategies are proposed for changing attitudes serving each of the functions. The importance of distinguishing attitudes toward lesbians from those focused on gay men is also discussed.     

Disclosure patterns within social networks of gay men and lesbians

Gay men and lesbians must make decisions about disclosure of their sexual orientation. Past research has focused on an individual's overall level of disclosure or on disclosure to a specific subset of individuals. This study used a new measure, the Disclosure Grid, to assess the disclosure patterns of 89 gay men and 55 lesbians across their entire social network. In addition to assessing disclosure to each network member, the Grid also assessed perceived relationship quality prior to disclosure and currently. Finally, the Grid assessed perceptions of each network member's initial and current acceptance of the gay or lesbian person's sexual orientation. Data provide a rich portrait of disclosure patterns among a heterogeneous, urban sample of lesbians and gay men. Analyses also found support for three hypotheses about disclosure, relationship quality, and acceptance. For example, it was found that participants have better relationships with individuals they have directly told about their sexual orientation than with people who found out in an indirect manner.     

Understanding Asian/american gay, lesbian, and bisexual experiences from a poststructural perspective

This study explores the college experiences of nine Asian/American gay, lesbian, and bisexual students and, specifically, the impact of concealing or revealing their sexual orientation on their emerging sense of self. By utilizing a Foucauldian, poststructural theoretical perspective, the researcher found that the students navigated multiple discourses, and their decisions about revealing their sexual orientation were based on relationships formed within those discourses. These decisions, in turn, helped many of the students grasp their emerging agency within the dominant discourse. To conclude, the researcher discusses the implications of these findings for higher education as a whole.     

"Asian" men on the scene: challenges to "gay communities"

This article examines common assumptions behind the notion of "gay community," contrasting these views with the experiences of homosexual men originating from Southeast Asia on the commercial gay scene in Melbourne, Australia. The narratives here reveal fragmented social networks involving various social groups, categories of people and an "In/Out" culture where informants were culturally marginal. Fitting into the scene culture involves processes of assimilation, and loss of connection even with supportive ethnic networks. While all men who look for a place to belong on the scene generally feel pressure to assimilate to a predominantly white middle-class gay culture, Southeast Asian men generally had more cultural distance to cover. Men who are not well assimilated face exclusion, invisibility and discrimination. Differences and discrimination within Southeast Asian based networks also contributed towards fragmented relations. This article raises questions about dominant gay cultural forms, assumptions of gay solidarity, and how ethnic minority men make sense of and negotiate their sexual and social experiences.     

The stigma of AIDS: fear of disease and prejudice toward gay men

Three hundred college students were presented with vignettes describing an ill person; the vignettes were identical except the illness was identified as either AIDS or leukemia and the individual was described as either homosexual or heterosexual. After reading one vignette, each subject completed a set of measures sensitive to interpersonal evaluation, prejudicial attitudes, and willingness to interact casually with the portrayed individual. The findings indicate the presence of highly stigmatizing attitudes towards AIDS patients and suggest that the public views AIDS patients and gay persons with similar attitudinal prejudice. The need for greater attention to AIDS by social and behavioral researchers is discussed.     

HIV/AIDS and Urbanization

It is well known that levels of HIV prevalence tend to be appreciably higher inurban areas. This article considers the reasons for this and shows that within world regions that are relatively homogeneous with respect to their experience of HIV/AIDS, variation in the level of urbanization corresponds to about one‐third of variation in estimated HIV prevalence. Furthermore, for populations in the world's worst‐affected area—eastern and southern Africa—there are signs that, partly by differentially raising urban death rates and depressing urban birth rates, HIV/AIDS is slowing the pace of urbanization. Finally, in countries with very high levels of HIV infection and relatively low birth rates, such as in South Africa, the urban sector will soon constitute a “demographic sink”—with death rates exceeding birth rates.     

A double epidemic: crystal methamphetamine drug use in relation to HIV transmission among gay men

Emerging research on methamphetamine use among gay men suggests that growth in the use of this drug could present serious problems for HIV/AIDS prevention within the gay community. This article summarizes current studies on the extent, role, and context of methamphetamine use among gay men and its relationship to high risk sexual behaviors related to HIV transmission. Methamphetamine is often used by gay men to initiate, enhance, and prolong sexual encounters. Use of the drug is, therefore, associated with particular environments where sexual contact among gay men is promoted, such as sex clubs and large "circuit" parties. Research with gay and bisexual men indicates that methamphetamine use is strongly associated with risky sexual behaviors that may transmit HIV. This relationship, coupled with emerging evidence that methamphetamine use is on the rise among gay men, suggests that the drug could exacerbate the HIV/AIDS epidemic among this community. The article offers recommendations for further research and suggestions for prevention programs regarding methamphetamine use by gay men.     

The individual and social psychology of aging: clinical implications for lesbians and gay men

This article examines issues regarding aging for homosexual people in an attempt to provide a more comprehensive understanding and appreciation of the meaning age has for women and men in our society. Through the use of case examples, clinical concerns and interventions are discussed as they relate to three broad areas. Specifically, the interrelated effects of ageism and heterosexism, normal changes in sexual response with age, and "accelerated aging" are explored. The relationship between social context and individual psychology provides the framework for this discussion. As the literature reviewed here indicates, there is a great deal of diversity among homosexual women and men in their experiences with aging. The strengths and insights which characterize many older homosexual men and women, however, provide valuable lessons for all men and women.     

A social geography of sex: men who have sex with men (MSMs) and gay bars on the U.S./Mexican border

In discussions of male homosexuality in Hispanic/Latin American and Anglo/North American contexts, ethnicity is often afforded a key role in structuring sexual identity, with a distinction being made between sexual role patterning (Hispanic, Latin American) and sexual object choice patterning (Anglo, North American). I argue instead that the key factor in shaping distinct patterns of sexual identity among Men who have Sex with Men (MSMs), within the broad though still circumscribed comparative context of Latin American and North America, is the role of particular sites, especially gay bars, in producing gay identity and community.     

人才租赁的社会心理学反思

人才租赁作为优化人力资源市场化配置的一种探索性实现形式,在我国得到了迅速的发展,但在具体的操作过程中,还存在着许多没有解决的难题。当前对人才租赁的推崇基于对其正向功能的认知,但这种从经济学视角出发进行的理性分析与现实并不相符,人才租赁不同于一般的租赁,只有从社会心理学视角出发来认识人才租赁中存在的组织困境和个人困境,整合用人组织与租赁人才的需求,才能寻找到双赢的路径,找到人才租赁未来发展的路径。     

Gay men with AIDS: perceptions of social support and adaptational outcome

Using a multivariate design, this study examined social support as a mediating variable between the stressor of AIDS and adaptational outcome in a culturally and socioeconomically diverse sample of 60 urban gay men with AIDS. Whereas earlier studies have suggested that social support for gay men with AIDS is often lacking or ineffective, findings in this study indicated that family of origin and friends may provide more support to gay men with AIDS than has been generally recognized. Both family of origin and friend support were strongly correlated with positive outcomes, indicating that social support was not only forthcoming but was also effective. The relationship between family of origin support and positive outcomes was particularly strong.     

Memoir and performance: social change and self life-writing among men who are gay pornography producers and actors

Identity may be understood both as a life-story, either told or written as memoir or autobiography, and also as a practice such as producing or acting in gay pornographic film, but always within the context of social and historical change. Study of the memoirs of gay men who have been actors and/or producers of gay pornographic films across three generation cohorts provides an opportunity for understanding the interplay of social change and life circumstances in making gay identity. This perspective on identity is illustrated through the study of the memoirs of three men from different cohorts who have produced and acted in gay pornographic films: Wakefield Poole, born in 1936; Scott O'Hara, born in 1961; and Aaron Lawrence, born in 1971. Differences in style and content of both memoir and practice in gay pornographic films reflect changing social expectations regarding men who have sex with men following the emergence of the gay rights movement and the AIDS epidemic.     

Stress and dress: investigating the relationship between social anxiety and appearance management among gay and straight men

This research project explores the relationship between social anxiety and appearance management behaviors (AMB), including both routine and non-routine, among gay and straight men and women. Prior research had found links between AMB and stress (Reilly & Rudd, 2002), stress and (perceived) discrimination (Lee, 1997; Savin-Williams, 1994), and sexual orientation and weight (Brand, Rothblum, & Solom, 1992). An argument is made that links stress with AMB using the foundation of Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) as a guide. Research questions investigated were: (1) Is there a correlation between stress and AMB; (2) Is there a significant difference between body mass indices of men and women of differing sexual orientations; (3) How do AMB differ between those with gay and straight orientations; and (4) How do AMB differ between men and women? Using a survey design, a questionnaire was posted on the Internet. Measures included the Rudd/Lennon Appearance Management Scale of Routine and Risky Behaviors and the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale. A total of 365 usable forms were completed. Results show that social anxiety is positively correlated with non-routine AMB, or behaviors that carry some risk. Gay and straight participants differed on the routine AMB they practiced. Men and women differed on the non-routine or risky AMB they practiced or would consider practicing. Implications are discussed and further research is suggested.     

Social networks and HIV/AIDS risk perceptions

Understanding the determinants of individuals' perceptions of their risk of becoming infected with HIV and their perceptions of acceptable strategies of prevention is an essential step toward curtailing the spread of this disease. We focus in this article on learning and decision-making about AIDS in the context of high uncertainty about the disease and appropriate behavioral responses. We argue that social interactions are important for both. Using longitudinal survey data from rural Kenya and Malawi, we test this hypothesis. We investigate whether social interactions--and especially the extent to which social network partners perceive themselves to be at risk--exert causal influences on respondents' risk perceptions and on one approach to prevention, spousal communication about the threat of AIDS to the couple and their children. The study explicitly allows for the possibility that important characteristics, such as unobserved preferences or community characteristics, determine not only the outcomes of interest but also the size and composition of networks. The most important empirical result is that social networks have significant and substantial effects on risk perceptions and the adoption of new behaviors even after we control for unobserved factors.     

Exploring the physical, mental and social well-being of gay and bisexual men who cruise for sex on a college campus

A mixed methods design was used to collect data from 30 men who were currently, or had a history of, participating in anonymous public sex in college campus venues. Data were analyzed to assess the extent to which participation in these behaviors was associated with both positive and negative outcomes across the areas of physical health, mental health and social well-being. Findings indicated that cruising for sex on a college campus simultaneously presents challenges to, and supports, the health of gay and bisexual men. Recommendations for interfacing with these men by campus and community health providers are given.     

HIV/AIDS and Cross-National Convergence in Life Expectancy

This article analyzes the effect of HIV/AIDS on the cross-national convergence in life expectancy as well as infant and child survival rates by comparing three scenarios. One is based on historical and future best-guess estimated values given the existence of the epidemic. The second scenario assumes that the effect of the epidemic is much worse than expected. The final scenario is based on hypothetical values derived from estimations where the mortality caused by the epidemic is removed. For life expectancy, convergence becomes stalled in the late 1980s (without weighting by country population size) or 1990s (with weighting). Convergence in infant and child survival rates does not become stalled, but slows down. These results are mainly attributable to the epidemic since all signs of stalled convergence or even divergence disappear in the “No AIDS scenario.” Given the existence of the epidemic, however, the reduced degree of inequality in life expectancy attained by 1985 is only expected to be achieved again by 2015 at the earliest. If the epidemic turns out much worse than expected, divergence could continue to 2050. No divergence is to be expected in infant and child survival rates in any of the scenarios.     

Exploring the relationship between public opinion and personal attitudes and behavior toward lesbians and gay men: social conformity revisited

This study investigated the relationship between social conformity, gender-role egalitarianism, and personal levels of heterosexism, or prejudice based on same-sex orientation. Mock public opinion polls of a positive or negative nature regarding same-sex orientation were used to study attitudinal and behavioral change of participants and attitude-behavior consistency. The study sample included 194 undergraduate students from a Midwestern university. A correlation existed between participants' traditional gender role beliefs and heterosexism. Participants who viewed the positive public opinion poll demonstrated behavioral support for a lesbian and gay organization, as did participants with positive attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. Findings are analyzed within a social prejudice framework.     

The Impact of HIV/AIDS on Adult Mortality in Zimbabwe

In June 2000, an estimated 25 percent of adults in Zimbabwe were living with HIV/AIDS. Statistical data on the impact of the epidemic, though problematic in many ways, are better for Zimbabwe than for many other countries in sub‐Saharan Africa. This analysis presents estimates of adult mortality in Zimbabwe based on multiple sources, including registered deaths adjusted for incomplete reporting, estimated at approximately 50 percent. Comparison of estimates from different data sources shows that they are subject to substantial errors. At the same time, the estimates leave no doubt that adult mortality risks in Zimbabwe more than doubled between 1982 and 1997. The evidence that this rise is due to AIDS deaths is circumstantial, but very strong; there is no credible competing explanation.     

Internalized Homophobia,HIV Knowledge,and HIV/AIDS Personal Responsibility Beliefs: Correlates of HIV/AIDS Discrimination among MSM in the Context of Institutionalized Stigma

ABSTRACT

There exists a paucity of research on the psychosocial risk factors of HIV/AIDS among men who have sex with men (MSM) in settings where they are stigmatized or face prosecution. The present study investigates discrimination against people living with HIV (PLHIV), internalized homophobia, HIV/AIDS personal responsibility beliefs and HIV knowledge in a purposive sample of 106 self-identified MSM obtained through a web-based survey disseminated by two voluntary welfare organizations. Results indicate that internalized homophobia is positively associated with discrimination against PLHIV. Internalized homophobia also substantially mediates the effect of HIV/AIDS personal responsibility beliefs on discrimination against PLHIV, highlighting the confounded nature of HIV/AIDS and homosexual stigma in a setting where stigma is deep-rooted and institutionalized. Internalized homophobia may thus serve as a barrier to the effectiveness of HIV prevention efforts among MSM in Singapore.