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This article presents a review of the issues associated with a manufacturer's pricing strategies in a two-echelon supply chain that comprises one manufacturer and two competing retailers, with warranty period-dependent demands. The manufacturer, as a Stackelberg leader, specifies wholesale prices to two competing retailers who face warranty period-dependent demand and have different sales costs. The manufacturer considers three pricing options: (1) setting the same price for both retailers, while disregarding their difference with regard to sales cost; (2) setting a different price to each retailer on the basis of their sales cost; and (3) setting the same price to both retailers according to the average sales cost of the industry. In this article, the retailers' optimal warranty periods and their optimal profit, manufacturer's optimal wholesale price, and his/her optimal profit associated with different pricing strategies have been derived using the game theory. Our analysis shows that the results for retailers are the same with Strategy 1 or Strategy 3. In addition, we compared the effects of different pricing strategies of the manufacturer on supply chain decisions and profit. We conclude from the results that the manufacturer should either adopt Strategy 2 with symmetrical sales cost information or Strategy 3 if retailers' sales costs are asymmetrical. 相似文献
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本文在双渠道VMI供应链中,假设制造商和零售商分别处于领导者和追随者的地位,考虑了制造商通过联合促销协调供应链上下游的策略以及双渠道需求之间的搭便车效应,以此为背景建立了制造商和零售商之间的Stackelberg博弈模型,并通过拉格朗日乘数法求解出了制造商的最优发货策略和零售商的最优定价与促销策略。研究发现制造商开辟网上渠道直销产品后,零售商缺货时间比例增大。进一步研究发现,制造商承担促销成本的比例,双渠道之间的搭便车效应对供应链成员的决策和利润有显著影响。另外,双渠道的需求越不稳定,则制造商开辟网上销售渠道后获利越高,同时零售商的利润越低。最后,通过算例验证了模型的有效性并对模型中主要参数进行了灵敏度分析。 相似文献
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不同渠道权力结构和信息结构下供应链定价和销售努力决策 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
本文针对零售商销售努力和销售价格影响需求情况下的制造商-零售商两级供应链,研究不同渠道权力结构和信息结构下供应链的分散决策。基于博弈理论和建模方法,对几种权力结构和信息结构情景建立相应模型,通过理论与数值分析对不同博弈均衡进行比较。研究表明,随着零售商势力逐步增强制造商利润会逐步恶化;但零售商势力增强能否带来更多利润,取决于需求对价格和销售努力的敏感度、销售努力成本以及信息结构。占优一方可以通过获取对方更多信息来改善自己处境。若占优零售商不得不依赖于对制造商成本先验分布进行决策,当估计的均值大于真实成本时,适度的方差对零售商更有利。最后,讨论了销售努力成本分担的合作机制,针对非合作博弈给出了帕累托改进的合约区间和 Nash讨价还价均衡。 相似文献
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针对由多个供应商和多个零售商组成的结构可变的供应链网络,分别在零售商之间基于订货量以及价格两种竞争方式下,分析了供应商均不采用返回策略、部分采用返回策略以及均采用返回策略六种情景下供应链网络的竞争绩效。研究发现当零售商基于订货量竞争时,供应商采用协调策略对于其零售商客户及供应链均为占优策略,零售商更换供应商的成本将会影响供应商的收益以及采用协调策略的积极性;当零售商之间基于价格竞争时,返回策略在一定程度上仍能够激励零售商增加订货量,且对供应链渠道的利润绩效及其稳定性均具有一定的改善作用。 相似文献
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本文研究供应链纵向信息共享。考虑由一个生产商和一个销售商组成的供应链,生产商和供应商都拥有部分市场信息。生产商首先根据自己的信息决定批发价,销售商根据批发价和自己的信息决定零售价。本文利用三阶段主从对策为这一问题建模,证明了双方都不愿意共享信息是唯一的均衡。进一步还证明了不完全确定情形下供应链的利润比完全确定情形下的供应链利润还高。这就说明,如果在决策上没有相应的协调机制,信息共享不能增加供应链的利润。 相似文献
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在单制造商和两个具有竞争行为零售商的供应链系统中,本文研究了双渠道零售商和传统零售商的定价决策问题。首先,在零售商间进行Stackelberg博弈假设前提下,分别针对双渠道零售商和传统零售商作为领导者的情况,构建了两种模式下的零售商定价决策模型,给出了零售商的最优定价策略;其次,分析了零售商在特定情形下的定价策略;最后,用数值算例分析了模型参数对最优结果的影响。通过对比研究和数值算例分析发现:对于零售商来说,作为Stackelberg的领导者时的总利润要比作为追随者时的总利润大;对于供应商而言,传统渠道的零售商做主导者时的总利润要比双渠道零售商做主导者时的总利润大。 相似文献
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在碳交易机制下,将交叉持股战略引入到制造商减排决策中,研究供应链企业的减排和定价问题。构建了供应链企业集中决策下的决策模型和交叉持股前后制造商与零售商间的Stackelberg博弈模型,分析比较了不同情形下的企业最优决策和绩效,并以数值算例演示了交叉持股和碳交易价格对企业决策和绩效的影响。研究发现,制造商与零售商交叉持股能够改变碳交易价格对制造商减排量的影响,使得制造商的单位产品减排量一定提高,市场需求提高,在一定条件下批发价和零售价降低;当交叉持股比例满足一定条件时,交叉持股能同时增加制造商与零售商的利润并使供应链达到协调。 相似文献
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This paper studies the coordination of a supply chain with one manufacturer and two competing retailers after the production cost of the manufacturer was disrupted. We consider two coordination mechanisms: an all-unit quantity discount and an incremental quantity discount. For each mechanism, we develop the conditions under which the supply chain is coordinated and discuss how the cost disruption may affect the coordination mechanisms. For the all-unit quantity discount scheme, we find that the manufacturer charges the lower-cost retailer for a lower unit wholesale price in order to induce him to order more products. If the costs of two retailers have a remarkable difference, then the all-unit quantity discount scheme cannot coordinate the supply chain with disruptions. While the cost disruption may affect the wholesale prices, order quantities as well as retail prices, it is optimal for the supply chain to keep the original coordination mechanism if the production cost change is sufficiently small. The model is also extended to the case with both cost and demand disruptions. The equilibrium strategies of the retailers are investigated when the manufacturer cannot timely react to the disruptions such that she has to keep the original mechanism. We illustrate the results by numerical examples. 相似文献
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Chun‐Hung Chiu Tsan‐Ming Choi Christopher S. Tang 《Production and Operations Management》2011,20(1):81-91
Channel rebates and returns policies are common mechanisms for manufacturers to entice retailers to increase their order quantities and sales ultimately. However, when the underlying demand depends on the retail price, it has been known that channel coordination cannot be achieved if only one of these mechanisms is deployed. In this article, we show that a policy that combines the use of wholesale price, channel rebate, and returns can coordinate a channel with both additive and multiplicative price‐dependent demands. In addition to determining the sufficient conditions for the contract parameters associated with the equilibrium policy, we show that multiple equilibrium policies for channel coordination exist. We further explore how the equilibrium policy can be adjusted to achieve Pareto improvement. Other issues such as the maximum amount of expected profit that the manufacturer can share under the coordinated channel, the structural properties of the contracts under both the additive and multiplicative price‐dependent demand functions are also discussed. 相似文献
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Recent studies in marketing and distribution channels have shown that the balance of power between manufacturers and retailers is shifting. Based on this observation, we investigate a two-echelon supply chain with a manufacturer and a retailer in this paper. We first develop retailer-dominant non-cooperative game models by introducing a sensitivity of retailer's order quantity to manufacturer's wholesale price; then we analyze two cooperative scenarios, in which the Nash bargaining model is utilized to implement profit sharing between the manufacturer and the retailer. Under the assumption that the manufacturer and the retailer are risk-neutral, we find that the manufacturer and the retailer can bargain to cooperate at any level of retail-market demand uncertainty with exogenous retail price. However, the cooperation is conditional on retail-market demand uncertainty with endogenous retail price: it can be implemented if the fluctuation of retail-market demand is relatively small, and the measure of retail-market demand uncertainty does not exceed an upper bound. Theoretical and numerical analyses show that the retailer's dominance over the manufacturer increases with the increase in the sensitivity of retailer's order quantity to manufacturer's wholesale price under a limitation of retail-market demand uncertainty. Numerical analyses also show that the retailer's dominance decreases with the increase in retail-market demand uncertainty. 相似文献
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针对由制造商和线上零售商组成的供应链,考虑消费者退货行为以及产品退货会给企业造成退货损失,且线上零售商退货损失为其私有信息,研究不对称信息下的供应链定价、O2O渠道策略以及合同设计问题,分析线上零售商引入O2O渠道的可行条件及其对供应双方最优决策和消费者剩余的影响,考察不对称信息对各个企业、供应链系统利润的影响。研究表明,线上零售商引入O2O渠道存在可行条件,取决于退货损失的大小;当线上零售商引入O2O渠道时,制造商和供应链系统的期望利润水平均能得到有效提升;O2O渠道策略有利于提高消费者剩余,但到体验店体验产品的消费者不一定能够得到更高的消费者剩余;如果满足一定条件,则线上零售商会选择信息共享谈判与制造商共享其私有信息,进而实现"双赢"。 相似文献
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针对由制造商和在线零售商组成的供应链系统,在存在消费者退货情形下,考虑在线零售商在线上渠道提供促销与退款保证服务,其中在线零售商促销成本为其私有信息,建立了信息不对称下的供应链博弈模型,研究了在线零售商的最优促销策略与供应链合同设计问题;进而分析了不对称信息对供应链均衡的影响,考察了退款保证对供应双方期望利润、信息价值以及消费者剩余的影响。研究发现,当制造商在决策合同参数(设计合同)时,需要在在线零售商信息租金与供应链系统绩效损失之间进行权衡;若满足一定条件,制造商和在线零售商之间进行谈判并能够实现信息共享而分享整个系统的利润;当退货产品总是会给供应链成员造成损失时,退款保证会导致制造商和零售商期望利润的损失,但在一定条件下却能提升消费者剩余。 相似文献
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研究由一个制造商和两个零售商组成的二级供应链中,零售商之间的横向信息共享策略和制造商的信息获取以及最优定价问题。在模型中,制造商同时为两家零售商提供等价商品,零售商向消费者销售商品且进行价格竞争。以Bertrand博弈为研究手段,求解了零售商的均衡销售价格、订货量决策和信息共享策略,制造商的最大利润和最优批发价格,以及供应链利润。分析比较了在制造商不同的信息获取策略下,零售商、制造商和供应链的利润。研究表明,零售商之间完全信息共享始终为占优策略。但制造商获取下游信息时会使得自身利润增加,零售商利润减少,因此零售商不会主动把信息共享给制造商。考虑到下游的边界均衡解,供应链的利润变化还与市场的不确定性和产品的替代性有关。当产品替代性较高或产品替代率较低且市场的不确定性处于中间水平时,制造商获取信息后供应链利润增加,此时制造商可以用部分增加的利润成功购买零售商信息。该模型为上游制造商提供了最优定价和信息获取策略,也为下游零售商提供了求解自身最优销售价格、订货量和信息共享决策的方法。 相似文献
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本文旨在探讨不同渠道权力结构和联盟策略下风险规避型闭环供应链的决策问题。考虑到产品需求和废旧产品回收的不确定性及决策者的风险规避特性,在制造商主导、零售商主导及制造商和零售商势力均衡三种情形下,分别构建了制造商和零售商联盟与不联盟时的闭环供应链博弈模型,获得了六个博弈模型下的均衡解,对比分析了不同模型下产品定价、废旧产品的最优回收价格和供应链及其成员的期望收益。研究结果表明,在制造商和零售商不联盟的情形下,决策者的风险规避程度增加能够缓解双重边际效应,供应链期望收益与风险规避程度正相关,而在制造商和零售商联盟的情形下,供应链期望收益与风险规避程度负相关;制造商和零售商不联盟时,制造商和零售商势力均衡的渠道权力结构对消费者最有利,而制造商和零售商联盟时,制造商和零售商势力均衡的渠道权力结构对消费者最不利;制造商和零售商权力结构不对等时最优价格决策之间的关系与制造商和零售商的风险规避程度有关;供应链期望收益在制造商和零售商势力均衡下最大,制造商期望收益在制造商主导的渠道权力结构下最大,零售商期望收益在零售商主导的渠道权力结构下最大。 相似文献
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We consider a manufacturer serving two competing retailers that sell their products over a single selling season. The retailers place their regular orders before the season starts. In addition to this initial order, quick response (QR) provides a retailer with an additional replenishment opportunity after demand uncertainty is resolved. The manufacturer determines the unit price for QR replenishment. We characterize the retailers’ ordering, and the manufacturer's pricing decisions in equilibrium when none, only one, and both of the retailers have QR ability. We study how the profitability of the manufacturer, the retailers, and the channel depend on QR and competition. We find it may be optimal for the manufacturer to offer QR to only one of the ex ante identical retailers when demand variability is sufficiently, but not overly high. The manufacturer may also find it optimal to offer QR to both or none of the retailers, depending on demand variability. Finally, while QR ability is always attractive for a retailer when competition is ignored, we find QR may prove detrimental when its impact on competition is taken into account. 相似文献
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Channel Coordination for a Supply Chain with a Risk‐Neutral Manufacturer and a Loss‐Averse Retailer*
This articles considers a decentralized supply chain in which a single manufacturer is selling a perishable product to a single retailer facing uncertain demand. It differs from traditional supply chain contract models in two ways. First, while traditional supply chain models are based on risk neutrality, this article takes the viewpoint of behavioral principal–agency theory and assumes the manufacturer is risk neutral and the retailer is loss averse. Second, while gain/loss (GL) sharing is common in practice, there is a lack of analysis of GL‐sharing contracts in the supply chain contract literature. This article investigates the role of a GL‐sharing provision for mitigating the loss‐aversion effect, which drives down the retailer order quantity and total supply chain profit. We analyze contracts that include GL‐sharing‐and‐buyback (GLB) credit provisions as well as the special cases of GL contracts and buyback contracts. Our analytical and numerical results lend insight into how a manufacturer can design a contract to improve total supply chain, manufacturer, and retailer performance. In particular, we show that there exists a special class of distribution‐free GLB contracts that can coordinate the supply chain and arbitrarily allocate the expected supply chain profit between the manufacturer and retailer; in contrast with other contracts, the parameter values for contracts in this class do not depend on the probability distribution of market demand. This feature is meaningful in practice because (i) the probability distribution of demand faced by a retailer is typically unknown by the manufacturer and (ii) a manufacturer can offer the same contract to multiple noncompeting retailers that differ by demand distribution and still coordinate the supply chains. 相似文献
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策略消费者持币观望的行为对零售商和生产商的盈利都会产品负面影响,本文在二级供应链中同时考虑策略消费者的行为和产品质量设计,研究批发价格契约下策略消费者行为对供应链不同渠道利润的影响。分析表明,当生产商决定产品质量时,分散供应链下的产品质量与供应链上下游的议价能力相关,生产商议价能力越强,产品质量越高;当生产商完全掌握确定产品质量和批发价格的权利时,策略消费者的行为加剧了生产商和零售商之间利润分配的不公平,生产商能获得更大比例的利润;面对策略消费者时,厂商承诺产品数量有限能够实现比集中供应链下更高的利润,存在合适的产品质量和批发价格,使得分散供应链能实现数量承诺下的最优利润,并实现提升质量和增加供应链整体利润的双赢。 相似文献
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B2B电子交易市场为生产商和零售商提供了新的销售和采购渠道,从而改变了传统供应链结构.在考虑了随机需求和随机电子市场交易价格的基础上,文章研究了在B2B电子交易市场环境下单一生产商和单一零售商组成供应链的最优策略.在销售期之前,生产商首先决定批发价格和生产数量;作为跟随者,零售商决定零售价格和订购数量.在销售期,生产商和零售商可以在B2B电子交易市场中交易.研究结果表明,对于零售商,B2B电子交易市场可以作为投机市场或者第二采购渠道,而生产商在定价策略中通过欺压目的或者风险分担目的来进行风险管理. 相似文献