RFID and Operations Management: Technology,Value, and Incentives

As RFID technology matures and organizations seek to deploy it in their business operations, a basic objective in the endeavor is that of extracting business value from the technology. This paper examines three dimensions of the value proposition of RFID and attempts to identify areas for further investigation. The first dimension consists of the generic architecture of RFID implementations and the drivers of value that can result from its components. The second consists of measurement issues associated with quantification of value. Since the complete benefits of RFID will only result when multiple independent organizations deploy the technology and coordinate the resulting information flows, the third dimension addresses incentives for achieving that diffusion. The collection of issues identified through this exercise offers an initial roadmap to view ongoing research and recognize additional problems for further investigation.     

Mandated RFID and Institutional Responses: Cases of Decentralized Business Units

Using a theory‐building approach based on case studies, this research explores the responses of four decentralized business units to institutional pressure to adopt Radiofrequency Identification (RFID) technology. The institutional pressure emanates from the Department of Defense, and the affected decentralized business units operate in a large defense contractor. Institutional theory explains how organizations respond to external pressures to adopt new procedures, policies, and technologies. The case studies show how business units vary in their response to the RFID mandate and how different internal dynamics manifest. The responses range from complying faithfully, primarily concerned with satisfying the external constituent, to completely ignoring the mandate and focusing on internal efficiency initiative utilizing RFID. A number of propositions are developed to better understand the organizational responses to exogenous pressure to implement RFID. The paper concludes by proposing future research directions and issues that must be considered further.     

基于改进联合采购及配送模型的RFID投资决策研究

随着商品需求差异化加深和物流响应的加快，多品采-配运作效率提升面临挑战。RFID通过实时追踪商品状态实现商品信息全流程共享。但RFID高成本要求在采-配过程中实施RFID需平衡其投资风险和效率回报的关系。因此，本文考虑到实施RFID可提升采-配的订货效率和JIT （Just in Time）效率，研究基于改进联合采购及配送（Joint Replenishment and Delivery，JRD）模型的RFID投资决策问题。改进JRD实现多品联采和多客户联配协同，以RFID投资下总成本最低为目标，获得最佳采购周期和频率。模型通过设计差分进化算法（Differential Evolution，DE）求解，数值实验结果表明：（1） DE在求解精度和速度方面具有优势；（2）实施RFID有助于降低改进JRD模型总成本，但需关注投资规模和回报的均衡；（3）基于JRD全流程的RFID投资效果优于仅部分流程投资效果，且成本越高流程实施RFID的收益潜力越大。     

离散型制造企业RFID应用策略研究

本文回顾了RFID在离散制造企业的应用研究成果,分析了应用中存在的主要问题和应用需求.在此基础上,提出了离散制造企业RFID应用的目标和原则,把RFID应用分为单元业务应用、部门级应用、企业整体优化应用和供应链应用四个层次.最后提出了企业的RFID应用策略,并以江淮乘用车关键件跟踪方案为例,验证了策略的合理性.     

Determinants of RFID adoption intention by SMEs: an empirical investigation

Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology has been considered as one of the 10 technologies that will transform firm across industries. However, the adoption and use of the technology has been slower than predicted, mainly because of technological, organisation and environment factors related to RFID. This study develops a conceptual model that explores the role that technological, organisational, environmental and managerial characteristics of small and mid-sized enterprises (SMEs) play in their intention to adopt RFID technology. To test the model, a web-based survey was administered to 453 SME managers from the USA, the UK, Australia and India. Logistic hierarchical regression is used to test the proposed model. Implications for RFID technology research, theory and practice are discussed.     

Misplaced Inventory and Radio‐Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology: Information and Coordination

Misplaced inventory is a major operational problem in many supply chains. Radio‐frequency identification (RFID) technology has been publicized as a promising solution for the misplaced inventory. Adoption of this technology has a fixed cost and variable cost of implementation, which can cause incentive issues in the supply chain. In this paper, we consider a supply chain under misplacement of inventory subject to uncertain demand. We study both centralized and decentralized cases and identify the conditions to coordinate the supply chain under implementation of RFID. We show that the incentives of the parties for investing in the technology are not perfectly aligned in the existence of the fixed cost of investment. Based on the relative payments of the parties for the fixed cost of investment, the incentives to adopt RFID can be characterized into regions, where we observe only one party or two parties benefiting from the technology when the tag price falls in a region specified in the paper. We further establish the effects of changes in mean and variance of a uniform demand on the incentives for investing in RFID and find that the incentives of the firms may indeed decrease as demand becomes more variable.     

供应链企业投资RFID技术的博弈均衡研究

本文以两条竞争供应链（每条供应链均包含一个制造商和一个零售商）为研究对象,基于其是否投资无线射频识别（Radio Frequency Identification,RFID）技术,分别构建了两条供应链均不投资RFID（N情景）、供应链1投资RFID（S1情景）,供应链2投资RFID（S2情景）,及两条供应链均投资RFID（T情景）的收益模型,求解出相应的最优解并探讨供应链投资RFID的均衡策略。研究发现：相较于N情景,单条供应链投资RFID技术对其竞争供应链成员收益产生"负外部性"。当RFID成本较低时,供应链的均衡策略为T情景;当RFID成本较高时,错放率较低的供应链不采用RFID技术,其竞争供应链将采用RFID技术以提高自身的竞争力。     

RFID for Better Supply‐Chain Management through Enhanced Information Visibility

Mostly fueled by mandates, adoption, and implementation of the RFID, technology in the retail industry is growing rapidly. At these early stages of adoption, one puzzling issue for retailers and suppliers is the compelling business case for RFID. In order to explore the potential business case for RFID, we conducted a case study using actual RFID data collected by a major retailer for the cases shipped by one of its major suppliers. We show the physical layout of the RFID readers on a partial supply‐chain covering product movement from distribution centers to retail stores. First, in the analysis phase, we identify several performance metrics that can be computed from the RFID readings. Next, using this RFID data, we compute the values of those performance metrics. These values represent mean time between movements at different locations. Then, we discuss how these measures can assist in improving logistical performance at a micro supply chain level of operations between a distribution center and a retail store. We present how such information can be valuable to both the retail store operator and the supplier. We also discuss the initial lessons learned from actual RFID data collected in the field, in terms of data quality issues.     

A Field Study of RFID Deployment and Return Expectations

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology promises to transform supply chain management. Building on previous research in information systems and supply chain management, this paper proposes a theoretical framework for RFID adoption and benefits, and tests the framework using data on u. s. firms. Our analysis suggests that there is a positive association between information technology (IT) application deployment and RFID adoption. We find that RFID implementation spending and partner mandate are associated with an expectation of early return on RFID investment, and a perceived lack of industry‐wide standards is associated with an expectation of delayed return on RFID investment. These results suggest that firms with broad IT application deployment and a critical mass of RFID implementation spending are more likely to report early returns from RFID deployments. This paper extends previous research to understand the relationship between organization characteristics and adoption and expected benefits of the emerging RFID technology.     

RFID‐Enabled Visibility and Retail Inventory Record Inaccuracy: Experiments in the Field

Accurate inventory records are key to effective store execution, affecting forecasting, ordering, and replenishment. Prior empirical research, however, shows that retailer inventory records are inherently inaccurate. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) enables visibility into the movement of inventories in the supply chain. Using two different field experiments, the current research investigates the effectiveness of this visibility in reducing retail store inventory record inaccuracy (IRI). Study 1 used an interrupted time‐series design and involved daily physical counts of all products in one category in 13 stores (8 treatments and 5 controls) of a major global retailer over 23 weeks. Results indicate a significant decrease in IRI of approximately 26% due to RFID‐enabled visibility. Using an untreated control group design with pre‐test and post‐test, Study 2 expands the number of categories to five and the number of stores to 62 (31 treatment and 31 control stores). Results show that the effectiveness of RFID in reducing IRI varies by category (ranging from no statistically significant improvement to 81%). Results also suggest that RFID ameliorates the effects of known determinants of IRI and provide the key insight that the technology is most effective for product categories characterized by these determinants.     

Development of an RFID‐based Traceability System: Experiences and Lessons Learned from an Aircraft Engineering Company

This paper presents a case study of the research and development of an RFID‐based traceability system in an aircraft engineering company in Hong Kong. We report the system design and implementation, and discuss our experiences and lessons learned. The aim of the RFID system is to effectively support the tracking and tracing of aeroplane repairable items in the company. The study reveals eight critical success factors for the successful implementation of RFID systems, namely, create strong internal and external motivation for improvement, stir up desire to keep abreast of the latest technology for global competitiveness, strive for cross organizational implementation, avoid major process changes/limit process changes, start with a small RFID project scope, facilitate equipment vendor's investment, use cost‐effectiveness reusable tags, and transfer RFID skills and knowledge from university to industry. We also summarize 13 lessons learned, including three lessons concerning RFID implementation at strategic level, six lessons at management level, and four lessons at operational level resulting from carrying out this project. Given the contextual details of the study, the lessons learned can help other firms to better anticipate the hurdles they will experience, and make them aware of the possible ways to cope with such difficulties before embarking on the journey of RFID implementation.     

The Value to the Customer of RFID in Service Applications*

This article examines how customer value may be affected by deploying radio frequency identification (RFID) technologies within service environments. Business articles promote operational cost savings and improved inventory management as key benefits of deploying RFID. In response, service firms are using RFID to reengineer service transactions and customer touchpoints. Customers may view these RFID applications to offer both benefits and drawbacks. This article demonstrates that individuals will recognize far more value from RFID service applications than just cost savings and inventory availability. The article analyzes qualitative survey responses on the value gained from RFID to identify a broad list of value objectives—benefits and drawbacks—associated with RFID service applications. The article contributes to academic literature by providing salient value dimensions for return on investment models of service RFID applications and for future empirical analyses of means‐ends and value‐profit chain models. Managers can use the list of dimensions to develop rich business cases for evaluating the benefits and costs from enhancing service operations with RFID. The identified drawbacks also provide managers with a resource for understanding potential risks of RFID applications.     

Simulation Modeling and Analysis: A Collateral Application and Exposition of RFID Technology

RFID technology provides in‐depth, real‐time visibility into the status of assets throughout the supply chain. However, the deployment of RFID technology may have collateral value in the high‐quality data generated by these assets. This study explores the potential value of RFID data for tactical and strategic purposes and the redesign of processes within supply chain through the deployment of simulation modeling and analysis. We present a simulation study conducted at a regional hospital for which data related to trauma patient movement was collected with an RFID‐based system. We find that not only does this data serve as the basis for successful simulation modeling, but that RFID technology may address several data‐related challenges previously identified in the simulation literature.     

基于临界价格的易变质产品生产企业 RFID技术投资决策

RFID技术可以优化易变质产品的流通速度,降低变质率对该类企业收益的影响。现代市场是开放型的系统,然而当前RFID技术投资成本过高,因此迫切需要研究开放系统下不同成本的易变质产品生产企业投资RFID技术的可行性。本文建立了不同成本易变质产品生产企业未投资RFID技术时的竞争博弈价格模型和合作博弈价格模型,分析了变质产品数量对产品定价的影响,得出竞合模式下保持企业较高收益且对新企业不产生吸引力的临界价格。在临界价格基础上,分析了投资RFID技术对易变质产品生产企业收益的影响,得出企业可承担的最大RFID标签成本,为该类企业RFID技术的投资提供了科学决策的依据。最后,通过数值模拟分析验证了所建立的模型。     

基于灰色市场可追溯的RFID技术策略与窜货行为的博弈研究

考虑由一个制造商、一个零售商及两个独立市场（高端市场和低端市场）组成的供应链，针对零售商可能窜货而形成的灰色市场问题，构建了制造商RFID技术策略（采纳与否）和零售商窜货行为（窜货与否）的博弈模型，分析了RFID技术对灰色市场、企业收益及社会福利的影响，得到了博弈的纳什均衡策略。研究表明：1）窜货总是零售商的占优策略，而制造商RFID技术采纳策略取决于对零售商窜货的惩罚成本和RFID技术成本的高低；2） RFID技术和零售商窜货均会降低社会福利水平。     

基于RFID技术的双供应链投资决策研究

本文考虑零售商主导的分别由一个供应商和一个零售商组成的两条竞争型供应链中,当两个供应商都未投资RFID技术、只有一个供应商投资RFID技术以及两个供应商同时投资RFID技术时,考虑供应商成本结构的差异,对比分析供应链的投资决策。由于模型解析解过于复杂,本文通过算例分析,着重考虑产品的替代率、RFID标签价格以及库存可获得率三个因素对供应链成员利润的影响。结果表明两条供应链对RFID技术的投资决策会因成本结构和产品替代率的不同而发生变化,其中在两个供应商生产成本差异较大且产品竞争强度较低时,生产成本较高的供应商更愿意投资RFID技术,而生产成本较低的供应商不愿意投资RFID技术,两个零售商则希望使用RFID技术,所以此时仅会有一条供应链上的成员达成一致,决定投资使用RFID技术。     

Achieving Lean Objectives through RFID: A Simulation‐Based Assessment*

Lean concepts in manufacturing have focused on elimination of wastes within the business processes. This study investigates whether addition of radio frequency identification (RFID) technologies in the manufacturing process can complement Lean manufacturing. Specifically, will more accurate information from RFID‐based solutions help achieve the goals of Lean initiatives in manufacturing plant performance and, if yes, in what specific ways? The analysis is based on a comparison of the following three automatic identification technologies: existing (one‐dimensional) 1D barcode, 2D barcode, and the use of RFID in a real job‐shop environment where items are manufactured for meeting actual demand and also future forecast demand. We analyze the effect of information visibility in these settings by examining the various types of wastes that are typically addressed in Lean initiatives. The results of a discrete‐event simulation suggest that employing RFID in Lean manufacturing initiatives can reduce some wastes but not necessarily all types of waste. We observe an increase in overproduction waste in our setting, although other wastes are reduced with improved information visibility. Overall, our results indicate that manufacturing organizations should explore information visibility through RFID to enhance their Lean initiatives.     

RFID as an Enabler of Improved Manufacturing Performance*

The use of radio frequency identification (RFID) versus bar coding has been debated with little quantitative research about how to best use RFID's capabilities and when RFID is more advantageous. This article responds to that need by qualitatively and quantitatively analyzing how RFID facilitates increased traceability and control in manufacturing, which in turn enables the use of more lot splitting and smaller lot sizes. We develop insights about operating policies (RFID vs. bar‐code tracking mechanisms, extent of lot splitting, and dispatching rules) and an operating condition (setup to processing time ratio) that affect the mean flow time and proportion of jobs tardy in a job shop. A simulation model is used to control factors in the experimental design and the output is evaluated using analysis of variance. The results show the following: (i) performance worsens when bar coding is used with extensive lot splitting, (ii) process changes such as extensive lot splitting may be required to justify RFID use instead of bar coding, (iii) the earliest operation due date dispatching rule offers an attractive alternative to other rules studied in previous lot splitting research, and (iv) the performance improvements with RFID and increased lot splitting are larger when the setup to processing time ratio is smaller. In a broader context, we fill a research void by quantitatively showing how RFID can be used as an advanced manufacturing technology that enables more factory automation and better performance along several dimensions. The article concludes by summarizing the results and identifying ideas for future research.     

RFID技术压缩提前期对供应链收益的影响与协调

RFID技术能够压缩供应链的提前期,提高零售商的服务水平,同时也会增加供应链的成本,如何协调采用RFID技术后供应链成员的收益是迫切需要解决的问题。本文针对单供应商和单零售商的两级供应链,考虑提前期变化对供应链及其成员收益的影响,在假定RFID单位标签成本为一定值的情况下,研究了采用RFID技术前后分散式供应链和集中式供应链的收益,并探讨了契约参数的变化对供应链协调的影响。结果表明,收益共享契约能有效地协调采用RFID技术后的供应链,实现供应链成员的共赢,但是采用RFID技术后,能够协调供应链的契约参数的区间缩小,零售商的最优订货量减少,供应商的批发价格上升。最后得出供应链采用RFID技术后提前期压缩量的阈值,通过数值分析对结论进行了验证,该研究为供应链企业采用RFID技术提供了相应的管理启示。     

制造商RFID策略与零售商窜货策略的动态博弈分析

考虑由单一制造商、单一零售商及两个独立市场(高端市场和低端市场)组成的供应链系统，针对零售商可能窜货的问题，建立了制造商RFID采纳和零售商窜货的动态博弈模型，分析了零售商窜货策略和制造商RFID采纳策略，研究了RFID双重效应(成本效应和惩罚效应)对灰色市场、企业收益及社会福利的影响。研究表明：1)RFID可以有效抑制零售商的窜货行为。当不存在RFID时，若市场差异较大，零售商窜货，若市场差异较小，零售商不窜货。而当存在RFID时，即使市场差异足够大，若RFID惩罚效应较强，零售商不窜货；2)RFID可能使得零售商窜货反而会增加制造商的收益。当不存在RFID时，零售商窜货总是降低制造商的收益。而当存在RFID时，若市场差异较小且RFID成本效应较强，零售商窜货增加了制造商的收益；3)制造商并非总是采纳RFID，其策略取决于市场差异的大小和RFID双重效应的强弱。