Women's and men's subjective class identification from the 1970s to the 1990s

This study examines the subjective class identification of employed married women and men during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Using data from the General Social Survey, we test three competing models of subjective class identification: status borrowing, independent status, and status sharing. The findings indicate that the predictors of class identification for both women and men have changed considerably over the past three decades. The model for men has shifted from an independent model in the 1970s to a sharing model that depends on their gender‐role attitudes in the 1980s, and, further, to a sharing model irrespective of gender‐role attitudes in the 1990s. The model for women has moved away from a complex borrowing model of the 1970s toward a sharing model in the 1980s and 1990s, with women's gender‐role attitudes shaping their class identification process in the 1970s and 1980s, but not in the 1990s.     

The Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Attitudes Toward Women's Genitals

ABSTRACT

Sexual behaviors may be related to or influenced by a range of factors including individuals' attitudes toward women's genitals. To date, however, no reliable and valid measure exists with which researchers or clinicians can assess individuals' attitudes toward women's genitals. The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable and valid scale to measure attitudes toward women's genitals and to test its predictive capacity.

The process of developing the Attitudes Toward Women's Genitals Scale (ATWGS) was conducted in three phases: (1) elicitation, which involved a comprehensive literature review and surveys completed by 370 men and women; (2) development, review, and revision of an initial item pool; and (3) survey administration and psychometric analysis, which involved an initial survey administration to 604 men and women and a second administration, for the purposes of establishing temporal stability of the scale, to 16 individuals. The final ATWGS resulted in a 10-item scale that exhibited sufficient internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.848) and convergent validity, as it was correlated at 0.429 with the five-item Sexual Opinion Survey. The ATWGS also showed evidence of predictive capacity in that women's scale scores differed significantly based on their history of cunnilingus, gynecological care, vibrator use, and orgasm. For men, there were significant ATWGS score differences based on their experience with cunnilingus. Also, men scored significantly higher on the ATWGS than did women (p < .001), indicating more positive attitudes. The ATWGS was found to exhibit evidence of sufficient reliability, validity, and predictive capacity.     

When Sex is Hardly About Mutual Pleasure: Dominant and Resistant Discourses on Sexuality and its Consequences for Young People's Sexual Health

ABSTRACT

This study explores gendered discourses about sexuality in Ecuador, the consequences of these discourses for young people's sexual health, and the possibility of the emergence of resistance and challenge. We analyzed and compared individual interviews and focus-group discussions with: young women, youth service providers, ordinary young men, and activist young men. Five interpretative repertoires emerged: (1) becoming sexually respectable women, (2) policing young women's sexuality, (3) men threatening and protecting women, (4) sexual relations (abusing, fooling, or seducing?), and (5) emerging resistance. The repertoires constructed a hierarchy of sexualities in which heterosexual monogamous lifelong coupledom was normative and women's pleasure was absent, but resistance was emerging.     

More Than Just Sex

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to identify behaviors in addition to those of an explicitly sexual or romantic nature that men and women define as unfaithful acts in the context of committed dating relationships. We also sought to identify possible gender differences in the proportions of men and women who have engaged in these unfaithful behaviors while in dating relationships. We examined 219 college men's and women's reported involvement in sexual behaviors, romantic attachments, sexual and nonsexual fantasies, sexual attraction, romantic attraction, flirting, and social participation in dyads and groups with someone other than their current or past dating partner. A sizable proportion of both men and women reported engaging in one or more of the behaviors at some point in their dating history. Proportionately more men than women indicated having engaged in sexual fantasies of various types about someone other than their primary partner and reported “hitting on” someone else while in a dating relationship. No other gender differences emerged. A unique aspect of this study is that we asked young men and women to determine what kinds of behaviors they considered to be unfaithful rather than only examining sexual and emotional behaviors as has been the case in past research. Further, the few significant gender differences we found indicates that the convergence of men's and women's attitudes about sexuality may now be show in their behavior.     

An Examination of Gender Differences in Attitudes Toward Divorce

ABSTRACT

Using the General Social Survey, this article examines the gender difference in attitudes toward divorce. Although previous studies have found that women have more tolerant attitudes toward divorce compared to men, we find that this gender difference depends on the measure. Our analysis indicates that women are more likely than men to advocate making divorce more difficult to obtain. We find a significant link between the Protestant faith and conservative attitudes toward divorce; taking into account religious factors reduced the gender difference in attitudes. Consistent with prior literature, our results indicate that different factors affect men's and women's views of divorce.     

Gender differences in antifat attitudes

Abstract

Differences between women and men in the expression of prejudice toward obese people coexist with widespread antifat attitudes. It has been argued that these differences stem from women's tendency to internalize the social norm of slimness and to develop eating concerns, while men tend to resort to externalization and to showing antifat attitudes. Data obtained from 597 students (264 male and 333 female) revealed that men showed more prejudice against obese people, and that women had high scores in eating problems questionnaires. Finally, it is discussed why men and women adopt different strategies to deal with the social norm of thinness.     

Scientific Acedia

Abstract

Using a gendered context, this paper examines women's fear management strategies. Using twenty-six in-depth interviews with married and divorced participants, the researcher considers one question: “How does gender influence fear management strategies among newly married and divorced women?” Results depict a unique intersection between strategies women use to manage fear of crime and the ways they “do gender” that vary by the marriage context, providing insight into women's fear of crime.     

Battered Immigrant Mexican Women's Perspectives Regarding Abuse and Help-Seeking

SUMMARY

A qualitative, pilot study employing in-depth ethno-graphic interviews was conducted to examine perceptions and attitudes towards abuse and the help-seeking behaviors of a sample of ten battered immigrant Mexican women. Findings indicated that participants' attitudes about seeking help were influenced more by cultural factors (e.g., gender-role expectations, famialism) than by psycho-social stres-sors (e.g., immigrant status, financial dependency). Children's welfare played a salient role in women's decisions about seeking help, both as a deterrent and a motivating factor. Women's attitudes about their own abuse were more tolerant than their attitudes about hypothetical situations involving others. Changes in women's attitudes about abuse reflected changes only after some type of intervention had taken place. The majority of the women in the sample had misconceptions or were uninformed about shelters. Suggestions for further research and intervention with this population and a model of internal and external determinants of help-seeking behavior are presented.     

Sexism,Erotophobia, and the Illusory “No”

SUMMARY

I examined erotophobic, sex-negative attitudes toward female sexuality as they relate to acquaintance rape. Evidence suggests that sexist assumptions about female eroticism are intrinsically related to sexual violence against women. The argument is made that society's willingness to acknowledge women as sexual victims while simultaneously failing to validate women as sexual agents creates an ideal breeding ground for acquaintance rape. Accordingly, an analysis will be offered: in a culture that denies women freedom to say “yes” to sex without negative stigma, “no” does not always mean “no.” In this article, I will assert mat those who care about stopping sexual aggression in dating relationships have an obligation to work to eradicate sexist assumptions that neuter women's erotic selves.     

The meanings and motives for women's use of violence in Canadian college dating relationships: Results from a national survey

Data from a Canadian nationwide representative sample of 1,835 female college students were used to test a variety of propositions about women's use of violence in dating relationships. It has become progressively common in both Canada and the United States to argue that women are as violent as men. Although in a crude counting of violent acts these data confirm the contention that women commit a large number of such acts, a further investigation of the women's motives shows that a substantial amount of their violence was in self‐defense, or “fighting back.” The more these women had been victimized, whether physically or sexually, the more likely they were to report that they had used self‐defensive violence. The finding that a substantial amount of women's     

GENDER MATCHING AND COMPETITIVENESS: EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE

This paper experimentally investigates if and how people's competitiveness depends on their own gender and on the gender of people with whom they interact. Participants are given information about the gender of the co‐participant they are matched with, they then choose between a tournament or a piece rate payment scheme, and finally perform a real task. As already observed in the literature, we find that significantly more men than women choose the tournament. The gender of the co‐participant directly influences men's choices (men compete less against other men than against women), but only when the gender information is made sufficiently salient. A higher predicted competitiveness of women induces more competition. Giving stronger tournament incentives, or allowing the participants to choose the gender of their co‐participant, increases women's willingness to compete, but does not close the gender gap in competitiveness. (JEL C70, C91, J16, J24, J31, M52)     

First Ladies in the States

ABSTRACT

Observers have long speculated about the influence of first ladies. We offer a systematic examination of the political and private roles of the women who are married to the nation's governors. Using survey responses from governors' spouses, we found these women to be politically active in a variety of arenas. Though most governors' spouses sought to use the influence afforded by their position, the issues they choose to target remain within the realm of traditional women's issues. Additionally, the institutionalization of the political first lady as evidenced here indicates that these may be the first in a long line of publicly active political spouses.     

Who Gets What? Gender Differences in “Spendable” Income

SUMMARY

Feminist policy makers need accurate measures of inequality in the economic well-being of men and women. In this paper, we explain why the wage gap by gender gives a misleading measure of women's relative economic well-being in the United States, emphasizing the effects of income pooling within households. We construct a household-level index of women's “spendable” income relative to men's that builds on Randy Albelda's (1988) “PAR index.” We improve on the PAR index in three ways. First, we account for economies of scale associated with additional household members. Second, we utilize the Current Population Survey to capture the impact of government taxes and transfers, providing an indicator of “spendable,” rather than “money,” income. Finally, as a step toward redefining the concept of “spendable” income, we deduct a lower-bound estimate of child care costs.     

Attitudes Toward Housework and Child Care and the Gendered Division of Labor

Research on the division of household labor has typically examined the role of time availability, relative resources, and gender ideology. We explore the gendered meaning of domestic work by examining the role of men's and women's attitudes toward household labor. Using data from the Dutch Time Competition Survey (N = 732), we find that women have more favorable attitudes toward cleaning, cooking, and child care than do men: Women enjoy it more, set higher standards for it, and feel more responsible for it. Furthermore, women's favorable and men's unfavorable attitudes are associated with women's greater contribution to household labor. Effects are stronger for housework than child care, own attitudes matter more than partner's, and men's attitudes are more influential than women's.     

Attitudes Toward Premarital Sex in Contemporary Vietnam: Findings from a National Survey

ABSTRACT

Despite growing concerns over increasingly relaxed sexual culture in Vietnam, population-based research that investigates the openness to premarital sex in contemporary Vietnam remains scarce. Using data from the Vietnam Population and AIDS Indicator Survey 2005, this study examined the acceptance toward premarital sex and documented significant differences in attitudes by gender, age, and marital status. Attitudes of Vietnamese toward premarital sex generally remained conservative. Men were more permissive than women. Among both male and female respondents, higher acceptance levels were reported to men's practice of premarital sex than to women's same practice. Unmarried respondents were more open than those who were married. A growing openness toward premarital sex among the younger age was found only among the married. Results suggest the coexistence of traditional values and a growing permissiveness toward premarital sex in Vietnam.     

Contending with the “Double Handicap”

SUMMARY

This article explores the impact of a quarter century of gender politics in presidential elections in the United States stressing the dual importance of differences between men and women, the gender gap, and women as a political force as they have come not only to exceed men in their voting numbers but also in their turnout rate. It reviews the way women's votes have affected presidential campaigns, drawing attention to the effect women's and men's votes have had on the Electoral College which is what counts in presidential elections. It raises the important question of what impact the attention to women voters has had on the public policies of administrations between elections.     

Gender,marital status,and mental well‐being: A retest of Bernard's his and her marriages

In The Future of Marriage, Bernard (1972) states that marriage is good for men but not for women: she reports married males to be happier than unmarried males or married women, who in turn are worse off emotionally than single women. The present study tests Bernard's thesis with a multi‐item index of mental well‐being and does not substantiate the relationships stated above. However, marriage is more beneficial for men than for women in that there is a greater difference in mental well‐being between married and unmarried men than women.     

Resources,Family Organization,and Domestic Violence Against Married Women in Minya,Egypt

I evaluate the influence of household wealth, women's socioeconomic dependence, status inconsistency, and family organization on physical abuse in the prior year and attitudes about wife abuse and divorce among 2,522 married women in Minya, Egypt. Household wealth is negatively associated with physical abuse. Women who are dependent on marriage because they have sons and less schooling than their husbands are more likely to have experienced physical abuse and to report marginally more tolerance for such abuse. Women who are isolated from natal or biological kin and living with marital relatives are more likely to have experienced physical abuse. Findings underscore the role of women's dependence and social isolation in enabling physical abuse among women of all economic classes.     

A New Approach to Religious Commitment

Abstract

The authors propose a new framework for studying religious commitment. Commitment is viewed as a general social process which occurs in various aspects of life (e.g., marriage, work, politics, and religion). It consists of subjective and behavioral components. Religious commitment is defined as the interaction between people's religious consciousness and religious participation. Other religious beliefs, feelings, and intellectual inclinations are considered to be parts of people's religious orientations, not aspects of commitment as other approaches have suggested. Data from members of six Christian denominations are used to explore this conceptualization and the relationships among these variables. Some determinants and consequences of commitment also are considered. The evidence yields several propositions regarding factors that affect commitment and the effects of religion on people's attitudes and behaviors. The paper's implications for future research on religious commitment in particular and commitment in general also are discussed.     

Women's Status and Social Capital in the United States

SUMMARY

Robert Putnam's Bowling Alone found that social capital is closely associated with a variety of important indicators of community health, and women benefit from many of these resources as members of their communities. But is there anything distinct about how women experience social capital? Is there a relationship between social capital and women's status overall? Using data on social capital from Bowling Alone and data collected by the Institute for Women's Policy Research for its Status of Women in the States project, we assess trends across the states on both dimensions. Overall, the findings suggest that there is a strong relationship between the two.