The Ripples of Rivalry: The Spread of Modern Medicine from Japan to its Colonies

Because the medical modernization of Meiji Japan has been identified with progress in Asian societies, Japanese colonial medicine has been viewed as a carefully planned project. Colonial propaganda capitalized on this image in bringing “civilization to colonies.” In postwar scholarship, this view lends credibility to Basalla’s diffusionist model of the spread of Western science. However, a factor in the spread of modern medicine from Japan to its colonies was the academic rivalry between Kitasato’s pupils and Todai faculty between 1899 and 1914. Before medical modernization in Japan had produced sufficient resources to meet domestic need, the rivalry had driven many medical elites to colonies, with a ripple effect that produced a web of colonial medicine largely outside Todai’s influence. In contrast to popular interpretations, this article proposes another possibility for understanding the formation of Japanese colonial medicine—rather than being carefully planned, it emerged from a professional feud.     

Morality Versus Science: The Two Cultures Discourse in 1950s Taiwan

This article discusses the conflict that broke out between the Taiwanese Positivists and New Confucians in 1950s Taiwan. Opposing views on science, tradition, Chinese culture, and Western culture led to a series of debates, which yielded significant impacts on Taiwanese society. After several previous studies, I re-examine the conflict and how it played out, concluding that its historical significance is twofold. First, both Positivists and New Confucians had no effect on the scientific industrialization of Taiwan but had political, cultural, and social effects. Second, the debates constructed a Taiwanese version of C.P. Snow's “two cultures”—a morally humanistic Chinese culture contrasting with a positivistic scientific Western culture. These served as the historical prototype for later formulations of the two cultures.     

科学社会学视野下的中医和西医

在科学社会学视野下,医学和人类学具有同源性,只是缘于自然环境、宗教和图腾等的差异,分化出了中医和西医两大不同医疗模式的医学流派.在相当长的历史时期里,东、西方在医学方面一直有交流,特别是在近代西医东进的过程中,西医逐渐成为了中国主流社会认可的治疗方式,而中医有赖于其强大的文化生命力在中国继续存在.然而中、西医在理论、技术、评价体系等方面的差异却很难在短时间内弥合.在当今世界医学西医化的大趋势下,中医、中药学的传统魅力依然闪耀,它所保留和传达出的远古人类社会对于天(大自然)人关系的理解,仍然会成为人类医学的财富.     

焦易堂与中医药事业

焦易堂,陕西武功县人,早年加入同盟会,南京政府成立后,长期任立法委员.1931年,中央国医馆成立,他被国医界公推为国医馆馆长.他一生遵照中山先生道教,倡导发扬中医药国粹,筹建了全国性中医组织,保护了中医的合法权益;促进<中医条例>的拟定与实施,在法律上保障了中医地位;积极筹办中医学校、医院、药厂,主张中西医结合,以科学方法研究中医,为保存和发展中医药事业做出了贡献.     

Moral Community of Weisheng: Contesting Hygiene in Republican China

Weisheng, literally “guarding life,” serves as the Chinese translation for the English term “hygiene.” Nevertheless, the respected author of a Chinese textbook on public health from 1934 stated in his preface: “Weisheng is about ‘maintaining health’ and not at all about ‘guarding life.’” When read against the rise of weisheng in Ruth Rogaski's sense of “hygienic modernity” in China during the Republican period, this statement reveals a local and alternative conception of weisheng, linked more closely to traditional Chinese notions of “nurturing life” than to modern practices related to “germ warfare”. Public health advocates, as well as many modern historians, saw little value in this popular discourse and mostly disregarded it. This paper takes this alternative discourse of weisheng seriously, tracing its emergence, articulating its specific features, and exploring its historical significance as an alternative to the notion of hygienic modernity. The central discovery of this article is that Chinese critiques of modern hygiene—personal hygiene, to be specific—did not focus on the actual techniques for preserving health but on their moral implications, i.e., their effects in the context of the dual construction of self-identity and moral community. Drawing on this discovery, this paper explains the curious reasons why political leaders of the Republican period devoted so much energy to the seemingly trivial practices of personal hygiene while leaving untouched the construction of a national system of public health. As the contestation over hygiene became closely connected with larger debates about individualism, nationalism, and modernity, critiques of, resistance to, and local visions of hygiene revealed the development of localized modernities in China, characterized by alternatives in hygiene, self-hood, bodily sensibility, and moral community.     

“알맞게 낳아서 훌륭하게 기르자!” (Let’s Have the Proper Number of Children and Raise Them Well!): Family Planning and Nation-Building in South Korea, 1961–1968

This paper looks at the formation of a South Korean national health network by focusing on the introduction of an ambitious National Family Planning (FP) Program under President Park Chung Hee (1961–1968). The program, influenced in part by the model of its neighbor, Taiwan (Taichung), saw two pilot studies carried out in Koyang (rural, beginning in 1963) and Sundong-gu (Seoul metropolitan area, 1964–1966), before being carried to rural areas nationwide. If the program began with numerous echoes of Japanese colonial practice, it was mobilized specifically in terms of the emerging “modern” South Korean story and the state’s relationship to the welfare of the individual family unit. Using a range of Korean and English-language sources, the paper illustrates how the FP effort took: (1) the Koyang study of the effects of mass communication in rural areas as a tentative blueprint for expanding its national agenda; (2) subsequently enlisted mobile transportation (1966) to expand the scope of its reach; and finally, mobilized “Mothers’ Clubs” (1968) to penetrate the very fabric of rural society, making women both the target as well as the primary means of distribution. Ultimately, this strategy of enlisting the active participation of South Korean women on behalf of the program asked rural women in particular to submit their bodies to the state’s scrutiny, even as they formed the core of the distribution network. In this respect, FP anticipated the mass mobilization of rural South Korea in the New Village movement of the 1970s and leaves behind an ambiguous legacy of state control that is only just beginning to be re-examined.

Learning and Experiencing Chinese Qigong in Norway

This article discusses the reception of Chinese qigong in a Western context by focusing on the learning and experiencing of qigong in Norway. Drawing on ethnographic material from fieldwork among participants of a style of qigong referred to as Biyun medical qigong, I in particular explore the variety of body–mind states that Norwegian qigong students experience. I have differentiated five “stages” of Biyun practice. Using these stages as a framework, I demonstrate the gradual progression in the learning of qigong. “Body,” “concentration,” and qi (“life energy”) are all important constitutive dimensions in the practice, but as the learning progresses, qi becomes more and more prominent. Drawing on a definition of the body as “learning to be affected” and “learning to affect” (Despret, Body Soc 10:111–134, 2004; Latour, Body Soc 10:205–229, 2004), I suggest that qigong may be perceived as a practice that, at its core, involves learning to be affected by qi as well as to affect qi.

Geneticizing Ethnicity: A study on the “Taiwan Bio-Bank”

Taiwan as an island country is an immigrant society where interethnic marriages have been common. In the past centuries, it has not been unusual that people in Taiwan change their ethnic identities for various reasons. Its “four great ethnic groups” (sida zuqun)—the Hoklo, Hakka, Mainlanders, and aboriginal peoples—exist only as a social construction that arose in the 1990s in a specific political–cultural context. In 2005, a major government-sponsored research project, the Taiwan Biological Sample Bank—or Taiwan Bio-Bank (TBB)—was organized by a group of scientists and physicians. The purpose of the project is to collect genetic data from the “four great ethnic groups” of Taiwan in order to build a national database. This paper has three parts. First, I briefly review how the relationship between genetic attribution and the conceptualization of race/ethnicity has been addressed by social scientists and medical researchers since the mid twentieth century. Secondly, I analyze the history of biomedicine in Taiwan and the social and political context of the formation of the TBB project and its precursors. Thirdly, I examine the TBB’s theoretical and methodological assumptions about race/ethnicity in Taiwan. I point out that the rise of biomedicine since the 1990s has contributed to the “ethnicization of biomedicine,” in the sense that scientists have used dubious ethnic/racial categories with increasing frequency in practicing biomedicine.     

藏医学的起源与苯医

藏医药学历史悠久,源远流长。长期以来,人们对它的渊源众所纷纭,有来自古印度医学、波斯医学、中医学和藏族苯医等几种观点。本文根据藏族远古有关藏医药最初起源的神话传说、藏族早期史料记载以及苯医著作《本玉)与藏医药学奠基著作《四部医典》的比较研究,证明藏医药学是以苯医为基础,汲取其它国家和民族医学的许多精华而形成的一种民族医学。     

Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women

This article compares current concerns about “trafficking in women” with turn of the century discourses about “white slavery.” It traces the emergence of narratives on “white slavery” and their re-emergence in the moral panics and boundary crises of contemporary discourses on “trafficking in women.” Drawing on historical analysis and contemporary representations of sex worker migration, the paper argues that the narratives of innocent, virginal victims purveyed in the “trafficking in women” discourse are a modern version of the myth of “white slavery.” These narratives, the article argues, reflect persisting anxieties about female sexuality and women's autonomy. Racialised representations of the migrant “Other” as helpless, child-like, victims strips sex workers of their agency. The article argues that while the myth of “trafficking in women”/”white slavery” is ostensibly about protecting women, the underlying moral concern is with the control of “loose women.” Through the denial of migrant sex workers' agency, these discourses serve to reinforce notions of female dependence and purity that serve to further marginalise sex workers and undermine their human rights. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the International Studies Association Convention, Washington D.C., February 16–20, 1999, and is available on-line at www.walnet.org/NSWP.     

方剂·偏方·药文学——传统中医药文化三题

中医药的方剂、偏方和古代的药文学,是传统中医文化的三个特有现象,其中蕴含着因人而异、因时而变的个性化治疗思想,“悬壶济世救苍生”的公众精神以及儒医不分、文医联姻的人文精神,这表明古代中医属人文型人才。传统中医药学的个性化、公众性和人文性,对当前我国医药事业的改革与发展具有重要的意义。     

儒家伦理与传统医德

中国传统医学道德深受长期占统治地位的儒家思想影响,在注重道德教化和崇尚纲常伦理的儒家文化氛围中,孕育出源远流长的优秀医学道德,使得医家与儒家有着非同一般的亲缘关系。“仁爱救人”、“医乃仁术”便是儒家仁爱思想的体现。仁爱原则既是儒家伦理思想的核心,也是传统医德思想的核心。     

试论南京政府中医师资格认定政策与法规

在中医界不断的抗争下,南京政府陆续颁布了一系列有关中医师资格认定的法规。尽管这些法规的主要内容在不同的历史时期有所不同,但其压制中医的实质是一致的;不过,这些法规的某些内容客观上规范了中医师资格认定,具有一定的积极意义。     

Stem Cell Science and its Public: The Case of Singapore

In this paper, we attempt to elucidate a “public” that has emerged in response to the work of the Bioethics Advisory Committee (BAC)—an expert body appointed by the Singapore Government—that culminated in the publication of two reports relating to stem cell science and technology. We follow Annelise Riles in explicating a recursive form from which both the “public” and stem cell science and technology draw reference in their co-production. In this regard, we borrow Sheila Jasanoff’s terminology of “civic epistemology” in explicating this form, with focus on the practices institutionalised in the BAC and the ways in which knowledge claims are presented, tested and put to use in the public domain. We further attempt to provide an analysis of particular ethical constructs (such as “embryo” and “egg”) that have emerged. In so doing, we illustrate the development and refinement of a “civic epistemology” since 2001 whilst setting out the current ethical landscape in Singapore.     

How Commoners Became Consumers of Naturalistic Medicine in Korea, 1600–1800

Perhaps the most significant shift in the history of Korean medicine was the popularization of medicine that started during the latter half of the seventeenth century and continued in the nineteenth century. As a result of this process, a Korea equipped with a naturalistic and rational medical system was, for the first time in Korean history, no longer monopolized by a minority of the ruling class. The use of medicine in this period expanded nationwide, even to the level of small towns in terms of geography and even to the general populace in terms of socioeconomic class. In what follows, I examine changes in medical practices and explore the process of and factors behind the popularization of medicine. Given the sources, it is not possible to compile time series data to show at a glance the great changes that took place in medical practices during the latter half of the Chosŏn Dynasty by era, region, gender, and class. The closest we can get to such data comes from a comparison of diaries. However, it is impossible to understand the mechanisms of development and change for each period solely based on such a comparison of diaries. To overcome this drawback, I make use of a different form of example. The case concerns the long-lasting Kangnŭng medical mutual aid society 江陵藥契, which was initiated in 1603 and lasted until 1842.     

论民族医药的法律保护

专利、商标和商业秘密等知识产权制度为民族医药的发展撑起了强有力的法律保护伞。然而,由于民族医药具有传统性、传承性和群体性特征,致使知识产权制度在民族医药保护上面临着权利主体不确定、权利客体不具创新性等诸多困境,许多民族医药知识和技术难以获得知识产权保护。因此,有必要根据民族医药自身特点,构建知识产权之外的特殊保护制度。此外,在国内立法保护的同时,要积极推动国际立法,解决国内法域外适用的难题。     

民族医药的知识产权保护

民族医药是我国少数民族传统医学的结晶,具有鲜明的民族特色和地域特色.国际上许多国家正加快对我国传统医药的研究步伐,然而,当前我国许多民族医药面临消亡的危险,究其原因是创新机制的缺失.知识产权制度是促进创新的有效手段,因此,必须运用专利、商标、商业秘密等知识产权法律制度对民族医药进行综合保护.     

抗战时期东北朝鲜族文学中的民族文化传统

抗战时期的东北朝鲜族文学不仅表现出反帝抗争的时代性,还显现出多元厚重的民族素质与底蕴.东北朝鲜族作家凭借“下意识的文化自在性”,充分传播、诠释了本民族的文化传统,这包括朝鲜族的服饰、劳动生活、饮食、岁时节令等民族习俗文化,勤劳、顽强、坚韧、乐观、豁达等民族精神品格.对这些朝鲜族文化传统的恰切描述,成为抗战时期东北朝鲜族文学鲜明民族性的内在支撑.     

An Inductive Analysis of Young Adults’ Conceptions of Femininity and Masculinity and Comparison to Established Gender Inventories

This study provides an analysis of the content of feminine and masculine characteristics/behaviors described in writing by 366 young women and 289 young men from the U.S. Emergent characteristics/behaviors were placed into domains. For both femininity and masculinity, the domains of “physical differences related to sex” and “emphasized physical differences” emerged. For masculinity, additional domains were: “activities and interests focused on the body,” “powerful or oriented toward power,” and “emotion-control or emotionally-limited.” For femininity, additional domains were “lacking power,” “orientation to other people,” and “emotional.” We then compared the characteristics/behaviors and domains we discovered to gender inventories that are commonly used in the contemporary period. The masculine domains focused on physical differences, activities, and interests that emerged from the present study are mostly absent from these masculinity inventories. The domains focused on power and restricted emotion are evident in these inventories, but these inventories do not cover all of the characteristics within our domains. The feminine domains that emerged from the present study are more often covered in these inventories, but some of the specific feminine characteristics we found are not evident in these inventories. Results are discussed in terms of gender role theory, gender inequality, and potential application for qualitative and quantitative inquiries into the construction of gender.     

Science in Cultural Borderlands: Methodological Reflections on the Study of Science, European Imperialism, and Cultural Encounter

This article examines the methodological issues arising from the study of science and European imperialism. Drawing upon recent scholarship in a variety of fields, it argues for a combination of the concepts of “cultural borderlands” and “scientific imperialism” in analyzing the formation of science in cultural encounter. It also urges STS scholars to pay more attention to the field sciences. Although the focus of the article is on science and British imperialism in nineteenth-century China, its conclusions address an important aspect of the history of East Asian science, technology, and medicine from the early modern period to the twentieth century.