Practising planned birth and carrying out the education of transforming social traditions]

Practicing planned birth involves more than having fewer children; it revolutionizes old habits and customs. According to Confucian and Mencian tents, of the 3 unfilial acts, to lack an heir is the greatest. Even today some believe that only males are capable of carrying on the family line, but actually both male and female are posterity because: 1) historically, there have been societies where only women were considered to be heirs; 2) scientifically, both men and women pass on hereditary characteristics; 3) racially, all men and women are children of the nation. Further, the following old ideas must be addressed: traditionally a woman married into a man's family and thus was not considered an heir, but a man can just as easily become a member of the woman's family; 2) in old China women had no inheritance rights, but by law they now do, so they can be heirs; 3) when women married they took the man's surname and it was thus thought her family line would die, but posterity and surnames are two separate matters. The traditional attitude that "the more the offspring, the greater the prosperity" is not necessarily true because: 1) a big family does not necessarily mean there are more people to work because children under 16 years old cannot contribute to the family's labor force and need to be supported; 2) when children mature, they marry and must use their resources for their own family, so they cannot continue to subsidize their parents; furthermore, a big family requires enough land and agricultural implements to work it; 3) even though a big family has a greater income, expenditures are also larger. The traditional attitude of "raising children to forestall the problems of old age" no longer applies because with or without children the elderly can rely on the socialist system of ownership.     

Acquiring a new birth outlook is an important content of school education]

Besides good administration and technical measures, a new birth outlook from the general public is also very important for all work on population control. Through education, the people will learn to transform their traditional birth outlook to a modern one, based upon the interests of the nation. All schools have the important mission of establishing a new birth outlook through the political, legal, moral, and scientific education of the next generation. Educational methods should be variable and active, step by step through all school levels. Different contents and measures should be taken to educate the elementary school students in order that they may understand national policy, the equality between male and female, and the need to obey laws and regulations. In secondary education, emphasis should be given to the knowledge of population science, general health hygiene, human sexuality, common sense in health care for young people, and the relationship between human lives and the natural environment. For college students, because they are close to marrying age, special attention should be given to the practice of late marriage, late child-bearing, birth control, population policy, and studies of population science. Scientists and educators should cooperate to develop a complete system of educational materials to be used at various educational levels. A new birth outlook among the young generation will be created as a result of school education.     

Experience,perceptions and attitudes of parents who planned home birth in Spain: A qualitative study

BackgroundA woman’s home birth and postpartum experience can have a major impact on her baby’s, partner’s and family’s well being. It is a life-altering event that can help improve or worsen women’s self-esteem and self-confidence.AimThe aim of this study was to describe and understand the experiences, perceptions and attitudes of parents who planned a home birth in Spain.MethodsA qualitative study was conducted based on Gadamer’s hermeneutic phenomenology. Two main methods were used for data collection; narratives and individual in-depth interviews with 14 mothers and 8 fathers who had planned a home birth in the last year. Inductive analysis was used to find themes based on the data obtained.FindingsSix main themes emerged from the data analysis: (1) in search of a natural and personalised birth, (2) breaking with social pressures, (3) experience of home birth for the mother, (4) role of the father in home birth, (5) how does the father experience home birth?, (6) home birth is not available to all mothers and fathers.ConclusionFor the mothers and fathers in this study the home birth experience fulfilled their previous expectations of an intimate and natural moment, making it a highly satisfying experience for both. However, parents expressed experiencing negative feelings such as fear and worry about complications and labor pain. According to our research society in general and public health professionals in particular issue numerous criticisms and value judgments towards mothers and fathers who opt for a home birth in our country. In addition, the study shows the economic and cultural inequalities in access to home birth in Spain.     

An ethnographic study of the interaction between philosophy of childbirth and place of birth

BackgroundOrganisational culture and place of birth have an impact on the variation in birth outcomes seen in different settings.AimTo explore how childbirth is constructed and influenced by context in three birth settings in Australia.MethodThis ethnographic study included observations of 25 healthy women giving birth in three settings: home (9), two birth centres (10), two obstetric units (9). Individual interviews were undertaken with these women at 6–8 weeks after birth and focus groups were conducted with 37 midwives working in the three settings: homebirth (11), birth centres (10) and obstetric units (16).ResultsAll home birth participants adopted a forward leaning position for birth and no vaginal examinations occurred. In contrast, all women in the obstetric unit gave birth on a bed with at least one vaginal examination. One summary concept emerged, Philosophy of childbirth and place of birth as synergistic mechanisms of effect. This was enacted in practice through ‘running the gauntlet’, based on the following synthesis: For women and midwives, depending on their childbirth philosophy, place of birth is a stimulus for, or a protection from, running the gauntlet of the technocratic approach to birth. The birth centres provided an intermediate space where the complex interplay of factors influencing acceptance of, or resistance to the gauntlet were most evident.ConclusionsA complex interaction exists between prevailing childbirth philosophies of women and midwives and the birth environment. Behaviours that optimise physiological birth were associated with increasing philosophical, and physical, distance from technocratic childbirth norms.     

Space,place and the midwife: Exploring the relationship between the birth environment,neurobiology and midwifery practice

BackgroundResearch indicates that midwives and their practice are influenced by space and place and that midwives practice differently in different places. It is possible that one mechanism through which space and place influence midwifery practice is via neurobiological responses such as the production and release of oxytocin, which can be triggered by experiences and perceptions of the physical environment.AimTo articulate the significance of space and place to midwifery and explore the relationship between the birth environment, neurobiology and midwifery practice.DiscussionQuality midwifery care requires the facilitation of trusting social relationships and the provision of emotionally sensitive care to childbearing women. The neuropeptide oxytocin plays a critical role in human social and emotional behaviour by increasing trust, reducing stress and heightening empathy, reciprocity and generosity.Principle conclusionThrough its role as a trigger for oxytocin release, the birth environment may play a direct role in the provision of quality midwifery care.     

How to launch the activity of propaganda month of family planning in Sichuan province]

In mid-July to the end of August 1982, the Sichuan Provincial Party Committee and the Sichuan Provincial People's Government launched a 1-time family planning propaganda month in all of its cities and villages. The purpose was to promote and to carry out consistently and thoroughly the "Going a Step Further in Family Planning Work Directive" of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council. Through the propaganda efforts, cadres and masses of Sichuan became familiar with the Party's family planning policy and the basis for population theory, thereby benefitting the nation, its people and future generations. In addition, people sensed the urgency, glory, and responsibility of population control. Based on incomplete data, during the month of propaganda, there were 174,182 new applications for 1 Child Certificates, which was 94.82% of the certificates applied for in the 1st half of 1982; 419,696 cases of contraceptive use, or 43.32% of those using them in the 1st 6 months of the year; 247,808 cases of those taking remedial measures, or 35.62% of those doing so in the 1st half of the year. The 1 child rate rose from a June 1982 figure of 68.21% to 68.71%; the multiple child rate dropped from 8.24% to 8%. The projected birthrate for 1982 is 16-17/1000. The success of the propaganda month was attained through: 1) organized responsibility, clearly defined goals and complete preparations that existed at all provincial Party and provincial Governmental levels; 2) the propaganda effort that was a priority of all governmental leaders, who utilized every propaganda tool available; At every level, propaganda sessions of every kind were convened, the entire propaganda machine was mobilized, and propaganda was brought into the home and to individuals; 3) propaganda, experience, and implementation that were all utilized simultaneously; and 4) the organization and administration of propaganda work that was systematized.     

Further discussion of the quantitative limitation of population growth and planned adjustment]

The problem of the quantitative limitation of population growth is related to the development of economic and social productivity. Under a Socialist system, the reproduction of people themselves may follow a projected plan, in order that population growth may match economic growth, the quality of the population may be promoted, and sufficient employment will be possible for the entire labor force. The problem of the quantitative limitation of population growth, however, still exists. In the early stage of social development under Socialism, a quantitative limitation of population growth and planned adjustment were necessary in order to provide enough basic needs for daily livelihood and employment. In the later stage of social development, a quantitative limitation of the population growth and planned adjustment are still needed for the purpose of promoting population quality and ensuring the entire development of the people. Under a socialist system, excessive labor productivity will not produce pressure on the population; instead, it will provide new content for the planned adjustment of people's production and reproduction. From here, the capability of dealing with the problem of the newly increased population will be strengthened, and also the capability of working out a planned adjustment between the two productions will be enhanced.     

Emphasizing ideological education, implementing birth control measures and carrying out family planning in an appropriate way]

Since the establishment of responsible production system, certain existing measures for family planning have lost their original effectiveness. At the same time, some changes in the peasants' minds concerning family planning have also taken place. Many peasant families, especially those which have no male child, wish to have more children. In order to solve this problem, family planning work should be done all over again from the lowest administrative level. Through correct population and ideological education, the general public may understand that there is a surplus of agricultural labor and a shortage of arable land at the present time. Secondly, birth control measures, family planning techniques, and training of medical personnel should be improved in order to serve the people better. A full-time working staff for family planning work should be increased so that they may work closely with local people and solve practical problems. In addition, nursing homes should be established and managed well in each commune. All such nursing homes should receive financial support from the State. In the this way, childless aging people may receive proper care after retirement. The worries of those single-child households may also be greatly reduced. The overall resistance met by family planning personnel is thus eliminated.     

Some problems in determining the number of acceptors needed in a family planning programme to achieve a specified reduction in the birth rate

Abstract The paper attempts to revive professional interest in a problem originally considered by Lee and Isbister and which has assumed added importance recently because of the increasing number of national family planning programmes that are being instituted, which require the determination of the number of acceptors needed in a family planning programme in order to achieve a specified reduction in the birth rate. The publication of subsequent papers on births averted by programmes, notably by Potter and Wolfers, each of whom had made some criticisms of the paper by Lee and Isbister, has tended to obscure the differences in the nature between the problem raised by Lee and Isbister, and that discussedby Potter or Wolfers. The paper tries to bring out these differences and points out one of the limitations of the estimates of births averted obtained by using either Potter's or Wolfers's methods, viz. the inability to determine the time period to which the birth reduction refers, thereby further complicating the issues involved in assessing the social and economic implications of births averted by a family planning programme. The paper also points out some of the unrecognizedtechnical considerations which arise in dealingwith the 'target-setting' problem raised by Lee and Isbister and suggeststhat stochasticmodel studies might offera clue for evolving practical methods for tackling this problem.     

A formal theory for male-preferring stopping rules of childbearing: sex differences in birth order and in the number of siblings

Through mathematical deductions, this article shows certain macro-demographic consequences of individually employed male-preferring stopping rules in childbearing. It is shown that male-preferring stopping rules generate differences between boys and girls in birth order and in the number of siblings. Two situations are considered regarding the latent probability of having a boy: population homogeneity and population heterogeneity. The sex difference in the number of siblings exists even under population homogeneity, and the difference remains constant when each couple employs a distinct alternative rule. On the other hand, the sex difference in the birth order exists only under population heterogeneity. Substantive implications of these findings are discussed.     

A summary of the fecundity for the Zang nationality in the Muli region]

The Zang nationality in the Muli region is a major branch of the Tibetan people now living in Sichuan Province. Before 1949, the social economy in the local area was rather backward, public health was poor, the infant mortality rate was high as 50% and the overall population growth was slow. Since 1949, because of changes that have taken place in the social and economic system, the development of the population has also changed on a large scale. According to a recent survey, numerous households are still trying to change their poor financial condition through a population increase. Conversely, there are also some households with a better financial situation who prefer not to have too many children. In addition, fecundity also differs between women with some education and those who are illiterate, and the social impact on fecundity is very obvious. The influence from traditional concepts and psychological factors is also strong. At the present time, the national ploicy of China is for family planning and birth control to prevent an unlimited population growth. Ideological education and propaganda are needed to alter the people's traditional outdated concept of birth so that the common goal of controlling population growth may be achieved.     

Making a place in the metropolis: Locational attainment in cities and suburbs

What accounts for the differences in the kinds of communities within the metropolis in which members of different racial and ethnic groups live? Do socioeconomic advancement and acculturation provide greater integration with whites or access to more desirable locations for minority-group members? Are these effects the same for Asians or Hispanics as for blacks? Does suburbanization offer a step toward greater equality in the housing market, or do minorities find greater discrimination in the suburban housing market? Data from 1980 for five large metropolitan regions are used to estimate "locational-attainment models, " which evaluate the effects of group members’ individual attributes on two measures of the character of their living environment: the socioeconomic standing (median household income) and racial composition (proportion non-Hispanic white) of the census tract where they reside. Separate models predict these outcomes for whites, blacks, Hispanics, and Asians. Net of the effects of individuals’ background characteristics, whites live in census tracts with the highest average proportion of white residents and the highest median household income. They are followed by Asians and Hispanics, and-at substantially lower levels-blacks. Large overall differences exist between city and suburban locations; yet the gap between whites and others is consistently lower in the suburbs than in the cities of these five metropolitan regions.     

Increasingly heterogeneous ages at first birth by education in Southern European and Anglo-American family-policy regimes: A seven-country comparison by birth cohort

According to the 'reproductive polarization' hypothesis, family-policy regimes unfavourable to the combination of employment with motherhood generate greater socio-economic differentials in fertility than other regimes. This hypothesis has been tested mainly for 'liberal' Anglo-American regimes. To investigate the effects elsewhere, we compared education differentials in age at first birth among native-born women of 1950s and 1960s birth cohorts in seven countries representing three regime types. Women with low educational attainment have continued to have first births early, not only in Britain and the USA but also in Greece, Italy, and Spain. Women at all other levels of education have experienced a shift towards later first births, a shift that has been largest in Southern Europe. Unlike the educationally heterogeneous changes in age pattern at first birth seen under the Southern European and Anglo-American family-policy regimes, the changes across birth cohorts in the study's two 'universalistic' countries, Norway and France, have been educationally homogeneous.     

A preliminary analysis of the high birth rate in India]

The author first provides some basic demographic data for India and points out that the current annual rate of population growth of 2.45 percent is slightly higher than the annual increase in food production. Problems in the areas of employment, education, housing, and transportation, as well as the general problem of poverty, are seen as a consequence of this imbalance. The lack of success of the national family planning program is attributed primarily to the failure to achieve a satisfactory rate of economic growth. Contributory factors include early marriage, the low status of women, the desire for large families, and administrative problems associated with the family planning program.     

On the situation and tasks of current birth planning work]

This is the text of the closing speech delivered by the author at the 2nd Chinese National Symposium on Population Theories held on December 13, 1979. The meeting had been successful for several reasons, including the concern, support, and leadership of the State Council, provincial, and revolutionary committees. Under the leadership of the State Council, targets of natural population growth rates were established for 1980 and 1981. Financial rewards for couples producing only 1 child had been planned. Contraception, adequate child care, and eugenics were stressed. Attendants were urged to learn from Sichuan's successful experience. During 1979, a policy was established that advocates 1 child/couple and penalizes couples producing 3 children. Agreements were signed with the UN whereby China would receive US $50 million during 1980-1983 for equipment upgrading, education, and other related purposes. The goal for a 1% growth rate could not be achieved in 1979; the actual rate was probably about 1.2%. The major reasons for this failure could be attributed to traditional feudal concepts still prevalent among many Chinese as well as to organizational problems among birth planning units and technical problems in birth control. With goals of population growth set for 1980, and 1985 and zero growth at 2000, China would encounter tremendous difficulties in its efforts to achieve them. However, under the determination and leadership of the central government coupled with valuable experience over the past 30 years, these goals would be attainable.     

Carrying out the number seven directive of C.C.C.C.P., spreading comprehensive measures of birth control]

This report examines how the Yi Yang District of Hunan Province carried out the Central Commitee of the Chinese Communist Party's No. 7 Directive, i.e., the directive requiring the people of the county to take comrehensive measures, as opposed to single methods, to promote birth control. Yi Yang District officials in charge of Family Planning established a new and comprehensive program promoting birth control, stressing 4 major points: 1) a voluntary policy, 2) suitability of the birth control method, 3) safety, and 4) convenience. Under the voluntary policy they emphasize that people must be free to choose their own means of birth control based upon physical considerations and personal beliefs because compulsory measures are generally resisted. Secondly, the method of birth control must be suitable to the individuals involved. Local family planning agencies have been very effective in helping couples establish medical records and in providing them with practical advice. The third concern of the Yi Yang District officials is with assuring people of the safety of the birth control method chosen in order to eliminate unnecessary fears and anxieties about possible side effects. Finally, they stress that family planning assistance should be made available to people at any time. These family planning measures have proved to be very successful and bring about lasting results.     

Between a rock and a hard place: The evaluation of demographic forecasts

Forecasting, in general, has been described as an unavoidable yet impossible task. This irony, which comprises the ‘rock’ and the ‘hard place’ in the title, creates a high level of cognitive dissonance, which, in turn, generates stress for those both making and using forecasts that have non-trivial impacts. Why? Because the forecasted numbers that are invariably accorded a high degree of precision inexorably reveal their inevitable imprecision when the numbers forming the actuality finally take place and the numbers comprising the forecast's errors are precisely measured. The current state of the art in demography for dealing with the ‘rock’ and the ‘hard place’ is a less-than-successful strategy because it is based on an acceptance of accuracy as the primary evaluation criterion, which is the source of cognitive dissonance. One way to reduce cognitive dissonance is to change the relationship of the very cognitive elements creating it. We argue that forecast evaluations currently focused on accuracy and based on measures like RMSE and MAPE be refocused to include utility and propose for this purpose the ‘Proportionate Reduction in Error’ (PRE) measure. We illustrate our proposal with examples and discuss its advantages. We conclude that including PRE as an evaluation criterion can reduce stress by reducing cognitive dissonance without, at the same time, either trivializing the evaluation process or substantively altering how forecasts are done and presented.     

Investigation on birth desires of couples of childbearing age in Hongsheng and three other villages conforming to consideration conditions for the second birth]

The opinions of inhabitants of outlying rural areas regarding second births are explored in this report. By means of household interviews, it is revealed that 22 households out of 153 (i.e., 14.4%) that are eligible for a second birth usually do not opt for the second birth. In a study that took place in four villages within one county, findings showed that desire for a second birth is determined in large part by the sex of the firstborn, males being preferred to females. Moreover, this desire decreases in proportion to time in that the elegible married couple often realizes the economic benefit of having only one child after the first child's birth and chooses not to have a second one. Similarly, many low-income couples would like to have a second child but find that it is not within their economic means. Mid-range income couples often want a second child as well. However, it is generally the couples with higher income that choose to remain with only one child. The desire for a male child is quite strong in the People's Republic of China, especially in rural areas. The fact that the male carries on the family name is very important in most people's opinion, as is the fact that a son has the potential to increase the family's income through manual labor. Thus, the inhabitants of rural areas traditionally favor male children.     

Differentials in Australian Interstate Migration 1911–21 to 1961–66 by place of birth,Sex and age

Journal of Population Research - Without direct census data on migration prior to 1971, there is a deficit of information on Australian interstate migration this century. This paper uses the Census...