OCCUPATIONAL SEX SEGREGATION AND ECONOMIC INEQUALITY UNDER SOCIALISM:

An increase in scholarly attention to income differences between sex-typed occupations has generated a burgeoning literature. Typically-female occupations require preemployment education, not prolonged on-the-job training; receive less renumeration for work autonomy than male-typed occupations; and are concentrated in economically disadvantaged industrial sectors. However, these issues have received only preliminary consideration regarding noncapitalist societies and research has lacked an integrative, analytical focus. This study compares the earnings effects of education, type of work, and industrial sector between female- and male-dominated occupations in socialist Yugoslavia. As expected, average earnings are significantly higher in male than in female occupations. The results from the earnings regressions reveal a higher explained variance and larger economic returns to education among female- dominated occupations, especially in the managerial and professional strata. A decomposition of the earnings difference between sex-typed occupations suggests a variation in the source of inequality across skill strata. In the discussion, a comparison of capitalism and socialism reveals that while some aspects of the earnings attainment process may be unique to socialism, others are not.     

SEX SEGREGATION IN VOLUNTEER WORK

Sex segregation in the workplace—the tendency for men and women to work in different occupations and jobs—remains widespread. Domestic chores are also sex-typed, but the extent to which sex segregation is found in other forms of nonwaged work, such as volunteering, is unknown. One theory about the work/nonwork interface predicts a positive relation between the two types of activity: sex segregation will be just as common in unpaid labor. Another theory predicts a negative relation: waged work and nonpaid work are dissimilar. Maximum likelihood probit models with selection are used to estimate the incidence of sex segregation among volunteers in a nationally representative sample of adult Americans (N = 91,807). Men are more likely to occupy leadership positions than women. They are more likely to do maintenance work and teach or coach, while women are more likely to prepare and serve food or clothing, raise money, and "help out" at events. Sex segregation is most pronounced among those who volunteer to help young people, but negligible among volunteers advocating a cause.     

SEX AND WILLINGNESS TO MOVE FOR OCCUPATIONAL ADVANCEMENT: SOME NATIONAL SAMPLE RESULTS

The comparative willingness of men and women to be geographically mobile for occupational advancement and the contributions of various factors to this relationship are explored using national survey-data. Variables identified by past theory and research as mediating the association between sex and willingness to move did explain a substantial amount of variance in willingness to relocate in the entire sample and subsamples of married respondents and respondents in dual-earner couples. However, in each case, sex continued to explain significant additional variance in willingness to move Reasons for this finding and implications for further research are explored.     

THE EFFECTS OF OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SEGREGATION ACROSS RACE

The general relationship between occupational gender segregation and earnings inequality is well documented, although few studies have examined the relationship separately by race/ethnicity. This article investigates occupational gender segregation effects across whites, African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians. In addition, we explore two ways in which segregation may affect earnings: (1) by lowering the earnings of workers in female-dominated occupations and (2) by lowering the earnings of all workers in highly segregated labor markets. Our central findings are that both segregation effects contribute to earnings inequality and that the effects are observed quite broadly across racial/ethnic groups, although they particularly impact the earnings of African American women.     

A THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION OF PUBLIC ATTITUDES TOWARD SEX EDUCATION

Rates of teen pregnancy in the United States are significantly higher than those in most other industrialized nations. This is troubling in light of the consequences to teen mothers, their children, and society. Some suggest that teen pregnancies can be decreased by providing sex education in the public school system, while others believe that sex education is inappropriate for public school. Little research exists, however, on predictors of attitudes toward sex education, and most existing research is dated and lacks a theoretical framework. Guided by the seminal work of Ira L. Reiss, we examine the impact of labor shortages, religiosity, militarism, gender egalitarianism, regulation of sexuality, and a naturalistic view of sexuality on attitudes toward sex education. Results suggest that Hispanics, those with high levels of religiosity, and those who supported regulation of sexuality were significantly less likely to support sex education in public schools. Implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.     

MONEY AND SEX, THE ILLUSORY UNIVERSAL SEX DIFFERENCE: Comment on Kanazawa

Kanazawa tests the hypothesis, derived from Evolutionary Psychology, that men's income enhances their ability to engage in copulation with more partners and at a greater frequency. However, the results presented in Kanazawa's article fail to appropriately test for interaction effects and some of the analyses may suffer from sample-selection bias. I reestimate the equations appearing in Kanazawa's study and find (given the author's original methodological decisions) evidence in support of the evolutionary prediction in only two of the four original analyses. Had the same methodological decisions been consistently applied in the original study, then only one of the four analyses provides very weak evidence in favor of a sex difference in the returns to income. Furthermore, I conduct cross-national analyses with International Social Survey Program data from four other industrialized nations: Australia, Bulgaria, Ireland, and Poland. In only one of the nations (Ireland) and for only two of the four dependent variables is there any compelling evidence that men with higher incomes have more sex partners. Since the term "sex partner" may be ambiguous, I also use data from the National Health and Social Life Survey where detailed questions were asked that may better measure evolutionarily significant forms of copulation. The data are not consistent with the evolutionary psychological theory of sexual behavior.     

SPECIAL EDUCATION OR RACIAL SEGREGATION: Understanding Variation in the Representation of Black Students in Educable Mentally Handicapped Programs

The disproportionate representation of black students in special education programs has been well documented, yet explanations for the overrepresentation are rare. Using a unique sample of U.S. public school districts (N = 981), this article examines the effects of local racial and political-economic structures, school district characteristics, and school desegregation politics on the representation of black students in educable mentally handicapped (EMH) programs. The findings demonstrate that a minority presence in the school district and economic resources and black political resources in the community as well as various dimensions of school desegregation politics are associated with the representation of black students in EMH programs. This research provides further evidence that racial differences in educational placement are related to structures of opportunity in school districts and the communities they serve and that the placement process should be the focus of continued study.     

ADOLESCENCE, SOCIAL CLASS, AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPECTATIONS

Un survey sur questionnaire de trois cent quarante cinq (345) Ctudiants de dixikme annCe, provenant d'un milieu socio-kconomique hétérogé et fr6quentant les Ccoles secondaires polyvalentes d'un centre métropolitain fut réalisé afin de mesurer le niveau de convergence qui existe dans trois secteurs différents des conceptions Ctudiantes de leur avenir professionnel: (1) la convergence entre les valeurs professionnelles d'un étudiant et le choix de sa profession; (2) la convergence entre les aspirations hancikres professionnelles de l'ttudiant et ses gains monitaires probables; (3) et la convergence entre le choix professionnel d'un Ctudiant et celui de ses parents. Les rksultats dtmontrent que les Ctudiants provenant de strates socio-écono-miques supkrieures obtiennent une meilleure convergence par rapport aux trois dimensions que ceux qui viennent de milieux soci-économiques infirieurs. Des différences quant au sexe des rbpondants apparaissent seulement chez les étudiants des classes Cwnomiques défavorisées. On déduit de ces rhsultats quelques considerations se rapportant h la carribre professionnelle de ces étudiants. A questionnaire survey of 345 tenth-grade students in a socioeconomically heterogeneous, multi-program urban high school was conducted to measure the amount of congruence in three areas of the students' conceptions of their future work lives: (1) congruence between a student's occupational values and occupa- tional choice; (2) coqpence between a student's financial expectations of his work and his actual likely earnings; and (3) congruence between a student's oc-cupational choice and his parents' occupational choice for him. Findings showed that students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds experienced more congruence in all three dimensions than students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Sex differences were important only among students of lower socioeconomic background. Some implications for the future work life of these students are drawn.     

PERCEPTIONS OF SEX OFFENDER REGISTRATION: COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES AND COMMUNITY EXPERIENCES

ABSTRACT

In the mid-1990s, the Jacob Wetterling Act and Megan's Law were passed, respectively, formalizing the practice of registering sex offenders in publicly accessible, state-wide databases. The laws were passed in an effort to prevent recidivism of sex offenders and to promote community awareness of convicted sex offenders living in communities. However, the creation of these registries have led to numerous unforeseen collateral consequences for offenders. In qualitative in-depth interviews with registered sex offenders in Jefferson County, Kentucky, respondents reported experiencing difficulties with employment and relationships, instances of harassment, stigmatization, and persistent feelings of vulnerability, all of which they believed were attributable to their status as registered sex offenders. The collateral consequences reported by sex offenders are consistent with those reported for felons in past research. However, the extent to which sex offenders experienced these consequences appears to be greater and more intense.     

GENDER,OCCUPATIONAL CLASS AND WORK–LIFE CONFLICT

Although people from different countries may report similar scores on measures of work–life conflict, the factors which give rise to conflict may in fact be very different. Full-time working respondents to the 2002 Family module International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) in both Portugal and Britain were assessed for country, gender and occupational class differences in work–life conflict, focusing on both work and domestic spheres. Two distinct groups emerged as having very high levels of work–life conflict: routine and manual women in Portugal and professional and managerial women in Britain. It is suggested that very long hours of domestic work, combined with worries over unsatisfactory childcare arrangements and a lack of support from partners and informal networks, contribute to the high levels of conflict experienced by women working in routine and manual occupations in Portugal. The pressures of very long working hours, combined with a perception of increasing work demands, as well as additional domestic work, contribute to the high levels of work–life conflict for women working in professional and managerial occupations in Britain.     

OCCUPATIONAL GROWTH AND THE EXPANSION OF EDUCATIONALLY-RELATED EARNING GAPS

I develop an argument that facilitates understanding of how occupational growth impinges on the relationship between education and earnings. Much of the literature focuses on workers employed at the ends of the occupational hierarchy, whereas my contribution applies to workers positioned all along the occupational hierarchy. I argue that an undersupply of affordable, suitable labor in expanding occupations encourages a division of labor among workers who vary in educational attainment. This division of labor, in turn, leads to greater educationally-related earnings inequality—even among workers who hold similar positions in the occupational hierarchy. Such a development can become pervasive because expanding occupations exist throughout the occupational hierarchy and because educational attainment among workers varies within most occupations. In declining occupations, a different set of conditions pervades, and these conditions facilitate employers' efforts to control their wage-bill by compressing educationally-related earning gaps. A hypothesis is derived from these arguments and tested on a nationally representative sample. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis, suggesting the arguments considered here help explain how the relationship between education and earnings is influenced by whether workers are employed in expanding or in declining occupations. Consequently, this research improves our understanding of how earnings inequality among individuals is linked to structural transformations in the economy.