Becker's Side-Bet Theory of Commitment Revisited: Is It Time for a Moratorium or a Resurrection?

The results of Cohen and Lowenberg's 1990meta-analysis of 50 studies that empirically testBecker's (1960) side-bet model provide little empiricalsupport for his theory of commitment. They conclude that severe limitations of past research, both interms of measuring commitment and the strategies used totest the side-bet model, may be responsible for the lackof empirical support. Alternatively, they submit that if these methodological problems are notat fault, we should consider abandoning the side-bettheory. Three limitations of past side-bet research areaddressed in this study. The results of this study suggest that it is time to resurrect Becker'sside-bet theory of commitment. In doing so, we shouldsubject his theory to tests that employ more valid anddirect measures of the side-bet variables, that use measures of continuance commitment ratherthan affective commitment, and that apply to bothorganizational and occupational commitment.     

High Commitment Management in the U.K.: Evidence from the Workplace Industrial Relations Survey, and Employers' Manpower and Skills Practices Survey

Are the practices widely associated with thehigh commitment or involvement model, such as jobflexibility and minimal status differences, actuallyused in conjunction with each other? Or rather are they being used, as some commentators speculate, ina fragmented or ad hoc manner? The authors use LatentVariable Analysis to assess whether practices identifiedwith high commitment management do form a unity. They are simultaneously attempting to see ifsuch practices can be used as indicators for measuringan underlying high commitment orientation on the part ofmanagement. The analysis uses data from the 1990 UK Workplace Industrial Relations Survey andits sister survey, the Employers' Manpower and SkillsPractices Survey, on the use of a range of highcommitment practices across the whole economy. Theevidence suggests that there is an identifiable patternto the use of high commitment practices. Fourprogressive styles of high commitment management (HCM)were discovered. Though the use of it in its entirety is still relatively rare in the UK, theproportion of organizations with medium levels of highcommitment management is higher than is perhaps commonlyassumed. High degrees of high commitment management are not necessarily associated with nonunionworkplaces. The research also demonstrates that HCM doeshave some performance effects, though they are notunique to it since those organizations that adopt high commitment management in its entirety donot perform better on any performance criteria than allothers, but they do perform better than sometypes.     

Antecedents of Union Commitment: The Impact of Union Membership Differences in Vertical Dyads and Work Group Relationships

Relational demography has recently been employedto investigate the influence of workplace diversity onorganizational outcomes, such as organizationalcommitment, turnover, and performance (O Reilly,Caldwell, & Barnett, 1989; Tsui & O Reilly, 1989;Tsui, Egan, & O Reilly, 1992; Tsui, Egan, &Porter, 1994). In the present study, we utilize thetechniques and theoretical framework employed in the relational demography literature to examine theimpact of heterogeneous union membership status withinwork groups and vertical dyads, and the effect of thesedifferences on union commitment. A composite dataset was created from two Australianhospitals. Analyses of the data were confined to 460nursing staff who could be identified within 43 specificwork groups (hospital wards). The results indicate that while no relationship was found betweendifferences in membership status among co-workers inwork groups on commitment, differences between membersand their supervisors served to decrease union loyalty and belief in unionism (controlling for otherunion and organizational factors). Importantly, we foundsupport for an interaction effect between work groupsand vertical dyads. Differences in membership status among co-workers were observed to lowerunion loyalty and willingness to work for the union whensupervisors were nonunion members. The implications ofsuch findings for union policy are addressed.     

Inclusion and commitment as key pathways between leadership and nonprofit performance

Given the projected growth of workforce diversity in the United States and the fact that heterogeneous workforces result in both positive (increased retention and performance) and negative (increased conflict and turnover) organizational outcomes, nonprofit leaders are faced with the challenge of effectively managing their workforces. Findings ways to ensure positive workplace outcomes, such as employee commitment (an emotional attachment to the organization) and performance, is especially critical for the overall functioning of nonprofit organizations. Using longitudinal multilevel path analyses, this study examined whether transformational leadership influenced work group performance through both creating a climate for inclusion and increasing employee affective commitment in a diverse nonprofit health care organization. Results indicate that transformational leaders help increase perceptions of inclusion, which improves employee commitment to the organization, and ultimately enhances perceived work group performance. This suggests inclusion and affective commitment as key factors for how leaders can increase nonprofit performance.     

Alternative Models for Antecedents and Outcomes of Work Centrality and Job Satisfaction of High-Tech Personnel

Alternative causal models were developed,relating Work Centrality and Job Satisfaction toantecedents and outcomes. The antecedents examined weredemographics and need for achievement, and the outcomes included performance, wages, organizationalcommitment, and career planning. The models were testedusing data of Israeli high-tech personnel. Resultsindicated that organizational commitment, careerplanning, and wages were significantly affected by workcentrality, while performance was positively butnonsignificantly related to it. While all models provedto be acceptable, the best model posited JobSatisfaction as an antecedent rather than an outcome of WorkCentrality. It also revealed the importance ofdemographics for outcomes. Implications arediscussed.     

The Influence of Perceived Supervisor Listening Behavior on Employee Commitment

This study seeks to examine the influence of perceived supervisor listening on employee commitment in an organization. Research suggests that in today's organizations managers spend the largest percentage of their time listening, followed by speaking, reading, and writing. Although training addresses speaking and public presentations, interpreting technical reports, and instruction in technical writing, little has been done to either research or train listening skills.

Listening research has primarily focused on listening measurements and assessment (see Rhodes, Watson & Barker, 1990), and identification of specific behaviors associated with listening (see Lobdell & Gluc, 1990). Few studies have examined listening in the organizational setting (see Husband, Cooper, & Monsour, 1988; Husband, Schenck, & Cooper, 1988). A study by Husband, Cooper, and Monsour (1988), explored the initial question of supervisor's perceptions of their own listening behaviors in organizations. Further research by Husband, Schenck, and Cooper (1988) suggests that the subordinate's perception of supervisory listening may be different than the supervisor's actual listening behavior or the supervisor's perception of their own listening behavior. They found that subordinates did not feel at ease when communicating with their supervisors, and that the subordinates perceived that their supervisors were unwilling to listen to them.

As Husband, et al. (1988) suggests, there could be many starting points at which to address organizational listening. Based on some of the findings in their research, supervisor-subordinate listening seems to offer a logical beginning. The supervisor-subordinate relationship represents an essential link in the organizational structure (see Jablin, 1979). Given their argument, if subordinates differ in their perceptions of supervisory listening behavior, and perceive their supervisor's listening negatively, there may be a direct influence on their commitment to their jobs or the organization as a whole. This study attempts to determine the influence of perceived supervisor listening on employee commitment to the organization.

The respondents were 225 occupational employees and 53 managerial employees in a large southwestern utility company. The survey was a 69 item organizational listening questionnaire developed by Arnold (1989). The questionnaire was broken down into four dimensions: (1) feelings about the organization, (2) perception of relationship with supervisor, (3) perception of own communication behavior, and (4) organizational listening behaviors.     

Commitment and performance of nonprofit board members

Boards of nonprofit organizations are entrusted to oversee and ensure that the organization remains true to its mission, functions within the confines of state and federal laws, and operates in a financially responsible manner. This critically important oversight is carried out by volunteers. This study examined the relationships between board member commitment and individual performance. Commitment was assessed using Meyer and Allen's Three‐Component Model of Commitment: Affective, Continuance, and Normative (1991). The population in this study was volunteer board members of midsized, social service nonprofit organizations in the Orange County, California, area. The strongest findings were between affective commitment and performance in board roles. Committed board members reported more involvement and are perceived by the executive to be more engaged and valuable. Analysis revealed that executive judgments of participation are based on both board member behavior and Affective commitment expressed by the board member.     

Career Commitment as a Complex Moderator of Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intention

This study investigated the moderating role ofcareer commitment on the relationships betweenemployees' perception of company practices andorganizational commitment, and between organizationalcommitment and turnover intention. Using a sample of 225researchers from eight business-related researchinstitutes in Korea, it was found that (1) careercommitment was perceived as distinct from the twodimensions of organizational commitment (affective andcontinuance) by Korean researchers; (2) careercommitment moderated the effect of employees' perceptionof supervisory support on affective commitment; and (3) career commitment also moderated the effect ofaffective commitment on turnover intention. Thepractical and conceptual implications of these resultsare discussed.     

Expertentum und eskalierendes Commitment

The present study examines the role of expertise for the escalation of commitment. Subjects were 56 apprentices of the financial services sector and 46 subjects working as first-aid persons. Subjects were confronted with scenarios stemming from both areas of work and they had to decide about the allocation of further financial resources after a failing investment. Commitment was measured through the amount of additional investments. The independent variable ?expertise“ was manipulated by the combination of sample and job-context: Those, who had to decide about further investments in the condition with the scenario stemming from their own area of work, were considered to be experts whereas those who were confronted with the scenario of the unfamiliar work-setting were rated as novices. Results show that escalating commitment was significantly higher for novices than for experts.     

Members Participation in the Union: An Investigation of Some Determinants in Singapore

Data obtained from unionized employees inSingapore (N = 205) were used to investigate Strauss(1977) suggestion that union participation studies befitted into the general theories of role and commitment. Hierarchical regression analysis was used toexamine the contribution of role commitment variables(family and union) net of demographic, job or work andunion-related variables to the explained variance in a unidimensional model of unionparticipation. The model accounted for 43%(R²) of the explained variance inparticipation with the role commitment antecedent setcontributing a modest 5% (R²). The significant positive individual variableswere union satisfaction, union commitment, union tenure,and gender while union socialization and marital statuspositively, and family commitment negatively approached significance. Extrinsic satisfactionwas significantly negatively related to participation.Limitations of the study, directions for future researchand the implications of the findings arediscussed.     

Organizational Values and Their Relation to Organizational Performance Outcomes

The communication of organizational values and their relation to employee outcomes is evaluated between two departments within a Health Care Organization. Organizational values that are congruent with employees' values have been shown to increase employee satisfaction, commitment, and performance outcomes. This article discusses how values are defined and different ways that values can be communicated to acquire improved organizational outcomes. Past research on values within organizations is reviewed.

Questions from the Organizational Culture Survey and the Communication Satisfaction Questionnaire are combined to measure employee satisfaction, morale, and perceived involvement in decision making. The organization provided data on employee absenteeism, turnover, and performance ratings. An analysis of the results indicates employees in departments that have clearly defined and communicated organizational values perceive they are more involved in the organization and more participatory in decision making. Implications of the results for organizations are detailed.     

Commitment to Social Change:

The purpose of this paper is to examine commitment as it relates to the pursuit of social change. This is done through the analysis of accounts by veterans of their involvement in feminist social movement organizations (FSMOs). They convey their stories of commitment to the feminist movement with language that one might use to describe an intimate relationship. The collective voice suggests considerable sacrifice and dedication. It also reveals a deep belief that they were betrayed by movement beneficiaries. This sense of betrayal is rooted in the expectation that movement commitment would increase as attacks by the New Right on the FSMOs rose. The paper concludes with discussion of the relevancy of studying commitment to social change for both micro and macro social work theory and practice.     

Socialization and Work in Japan: The Meaning of Adulthood of Men and Women in a Business Context

Abstract  The Japanese term, shakaijin, refers to becoming a social adult, and locates the transition to adulthood in leaving school/university and entering an employment relation. In this paper we explore the role of company socialization in producing social adults. Company socialization is explored through a case study of a securities company, and an additional study of a large bank. New employee training programs are a central socializing event, and bridge the transition from school/university-to-work. In this study, events prior to and subsequent to new employee training arc also shown to play key roles in company socialization. Recruitment practices socialize as well as screen job applicants. Regular personal assessments continue socialization throughout the working life cycle. Based on the analyses of socialization in recruitment, training and assessment, two aspects of company socialization in Japan are emphasized. First, company socialization involves gender socialization. Male employees are the main subjects of company socialization, and their induction to social adulthood seeks to generate commitment and social integration to company life. Social adulthood of female employees is defined in connection with future familial roles rather than commitment to work. Second, the meaning of social adulthood for men is fused with acceptance of management goals. Company socialization attempts to align individual attitudes and behaviors with company goals.     

A New Approach to Religious Commitment

Abstract

The authors propose a new framework for studying religious commitment. Commitment is viewed as a general social process which occurs in various aspects of life (e.g., marriage, work, politics, and religion). It consists of subjective and behavioral components. Religious commitment is defined as the interaction between people's religious consciousness and religious participation. Other religious beliefs, feelings, and intellectual inclinations are considered to be parts of people's religious orientations, not aspects of commitment as other approaches have suggested. Data from members of six Christian denominations are used to explore this conceptualization and the relationships among these variables. Some determinants and consequences of commitment also are considered. The evidence yields several propositions regarding factors that affect commitment and the effects of religion on people's attitudes and behaviors. The paper's implications for future research on religious commitment in particular and commitment in general also are discussed.     

Commitment of Juveniles to Training Schools

The study analyzes commitment rates to training schools, average length of stay and the facility utilization in the various states over the period 1979–1990. Based on a regression analysis of the data, we found that only the bed ratio, which is the number of beds per 100,000 eligible population, and average length of stay in training schools are significant in explaining the changes of commitment rate over the years. The paper focuses on the meaning of the variation between states on the commitment rate, the average length of stay and facility utilization might have in terms of correctional policy. There is also a discussion of our findings that the only significant variables in explaining commitment rate change were institutional variables that influence correctional policy.     

Effects of Commitment and Psychological Centrality on Fathering

Propositions from identity theory suggest that interactional and affective commitment to a role identity affects the psychological centrality of that role identity. In turn, the centrality of one's role identity translates into role performance ( Stryker & Serpe, 1994 ). This conceptual model was tested with a sample of 186 fathers in first marriages with at least one child 18 years or younger. The results showed that fathers who perceived their wives as evaluating them positively as fathers were more likely to report higher levels of involvement in child‐related activities and place greater importance on the father role identity. This prominence, in turn, was associated with higher levels of involvement.     

The Social Construction of Marital Commitment

This paper articulates a theoretical framework for understanding how individuals orient themselves toward marital commitment. Using a life history interview methodology and interpretive framework, it examines the orientations toward marital commitment for a sample of women and men, single and married, between the ages of 28 and 35 (N = 75). Specifically, it elaborates a multidimensional view of marital commitment with attention to two multifaceted components, one value rational and the other practical. Borrowing concepts from exchange and identity models of commitment, it analyzes interpretive processes involved in their construction. Some preliminary comments on the role social position plays in shaping constructions of marital commitment are articulated and the implications of this model discussed.     

Commitment: A Conceptual Structure and Empirical Application

A conceptual structure for commitment is presented, specifying and clarifying the various meanings of the term as it has been used by sociologists and social psychologists. The possible importance of the concept for social psychology is illustrated by the interpretation of a number of social psychological experiments in terms of commitment processes. The utility of the concept of commitment for the analysis of courtship systems is discussed and the application of the concept of commitment on the level of social systems is illustrated by the use of the proposed conceptual structure in research on cohabitation on a university campus.     

Downsizing Survival: The Experience of Work and Organizational Commitment

Although downsizing has become a common feature of American workplaces, the existing literature has focused on the effects of how downsizing is conducted, rather than considering how downsizing affects the experience of work for downsizing survivors. Using data from the 1997 National Employee Survey and structural modeling techniques, this study compares downsizing survivors and workers unaffected by downsizing on a variety of sociodemographic indicators, job characteristics, and organizational environment measures in order to explain the lower levels of organizational commitment among survivors. The model in which downsizing survival was directly and indirectly associated with commitment was generally supported. Survivors reported less commitment than unaffected workers. In addition, downsizing survival was positively associated with job-related stress and negatively associated with perceived organizational support, which translated into survivors' lower levels of commitment. This research suggests that organizations that downsize should consider ways to redesign work processes so as to reduce job-related stress and should engage in organizational practices that demonstrate organizational support for surviving employees.     

Commitment in same-sex love relationships

This study sought to desribe and compare commitment structures among lesbian and gay male living-together relationships, and to develop an instrument which would measure different dimensions of commitment among gay dyads without some heterosexual biases inherent in traditional measures of interpersonal commitment. Questionnaire data collected from 32 lesbians and 50 gay males who had lived together for at least six months were factor analyzed, yielding three factors: (1) intradyadic commitment, (2) extradyadic commitment, and (3) commitment-as-trust. On all three of these indices the lesbians scored somewhat higher than did the gay males, but in fact there were surprisingly few significant differences between the gay men and the lesbians. Suggestions in the data that lesbians report somewhat less social supports and are more concerned with couple boundary maintenance, whereas gay males report somewhat more jealousy and dependency, are discussed in terms of their implications for such relationships.