Adolescent Transitions to Young Adulthood: Antecedents,Correlates, and Consequences of Adolescent Employment

The antecedents, correlates, and consequences of adolescent employment were investigated in a sample of 251 low‐income, African American youth that were followed since birth. The youth (age: M at preschool = 4.89, SD= .70; M at adolescence = 16.44, SD= .66; M at transition to adulthood = 19.36, SD= .76; and M at early adulthood = 27.67, SD= .75) were the firstborn children of African American teenage mothers who gave birth in Baltimore in the 1960s. Analyses examined the antecedents and correlates of age of entry into employment and stability of employment during adolescence. The associations of adolescent work experiences with subsequent adult education and employment outcomes also were considered. Findings indicate that among this sample of low‐income, African American youth, those who repeated a grade in school during middle childhood were more likely to enter the workforce at later ages than their peers who did not repeat a grade. The small subset of adolescents who never worked (n= 12) appear to be markedly more disadvantaged than their peers who worked. At the transition to adulthood, adolescents who entered the workforce earlier were more likely to complete high school than their peers. In addition, stable employment during the adolescent years had more beneficial effects on young men's chances of attending college than young women's postsecondary education. This pattern of findings is consistent with ethnographic accounts of adolescent employment among poor, minority, urban youth.     

Impact of Postdivorce Sibling Structure on Adolescent Adjustment to Divorce

A sample (N = 222) of middle school, high school, and college students were surveyed with regard to their adjustment to their parents’ divorces in specific domains, including coparenting, financial strain, and overall adjustment. With time since the divorce covaried, youth living with half-siblings, stepsiblings, or both (HSS) rated their experiences consistently more positively than youth living with full biological siblings only (FBS). HSS youth reported stronger perceptions that life has gotten better, parents are working together to raise them, and there are no lingering financial effects. There were no main effects for age, but an interaction of sibling structure and gender found male adolescents in the FBS group sometimes had more negative ratings than any of the other groups. Our findings contrast with prior studies suggesting that HSS youth do not adjust as well as FBS youth.     

The family structures are changing—but what about the idea of the family?

In contemporary societies, stepfamilies usually emerge following divorce and remarriage. This family form has become more prevalent in Finland during the 1980s. The present article focuses on the public discourse surrounding the stepfamily as this is reflected in family and women's magazines. This discourse reveals the still prevailing strong cultural norms regarding family life: living in a family is defined as the normal way of living, with bonds of belonging together and biological ties defined as primary. The stepfamily is expected to fulfil these expectations. The ideology governing the stepfamily is therefore very similar to that of the traditional nuclear family unit.     

An empirical test of a model of academic expectations among youth in residential care

In the last decade accumulating evidence across many countries points to the poor educational outcomes of youth formerly placed in care and their under-representation in higher education. Academic expectations in late adolescence are considered a key marker for educational attainments in young adulthood. Although these expectations were studied extensively, they have seldom been examined among youth in substitute care. The goal of the present research was to develop and test a model to predict academic expectations of Israeli adolescents placed in residential facilities. The study sample consisted of 1360 adolescents from 34 youth villages who responded to self-report questionnaires tapping their academic expectations, current academic achievements and various aspects of their family, school and facility's environment, expected to be associated with their academic expectations.Structural equation modeling indicated that parents' level of education was indirectly related to youths' expectations, an association mediated by youth's current academic achievements and parents' aspirations for their children's educational success. Higher levels of teacher and staff support were also found to contribute to higher academic expectations; however, whereas teacher support effects were mediated by youth achievements, staff support was found to have direct, as well as moderating effects, on achievement-expectations relationship.The findings suggest the importance of an integrative approach in the efforts to promote educational expectations among adolescents in residential facilities. Such an approach, encompassing the multiple adult functions responsible for youth development within such settings, could be an important step in enhancing the chances for future academic success of this vulnerable group.     

From nuclear to stepfamily ideology

The stepfamily, an alternative family form, has its genesis in today's divorce and remarriage rates. The absence of an institutionalized stepfamily ideology, which would prescribe rules for behavior and the interpretation of behavior, results in stress. Stress diminishes as stepfamily members adapt their behavior to fit their new extended structure. Some families attempt to maintain old behavior, which results in an anomalous nuclear family form, with its more private and autonomous expectations. This article is based on a qualitative study of sixteen white, middle-class stepfamilies. Each remarried partner maintains some ongoing care of children from a prior union within the new stepfamily household. All families in this study accommodated to stepfamily structure, at least to some degree, by shifting conjugal, parental, and kin relationships.     

The long reach of divorce: Divorce and child well‐being across three generations

We used data from the study of Marital Instability Over the Life Course to examine links between divorce in the grandparent generation and outcomes in the grandchild generation (N= 691). Divorce in the first (G1) generation was associated with lower education, more marital discord, weaker ties with mothers, and weaker ties with fathers in the third (G3) generation. These associations were mediated by family characteristics in the middle (G2) generation, including lower education, more marital discord, more divorce, and greater tension in early parent‐child relationships. In supplementary analyses, we found no evidence that the estimated effects of divorce differed by offspring gender or became weaker over time. Our results suggest that divorce has consequences for subsequent generations, including individuals who were not yet born at the time of the original divorce.     

Fathers,Mothers, and Family Structure: Family Trajectories,Parent Gender,and Adolescent Schooling

Previous research has neither fully examined family structure across the life course nor considered increasing variation in family types. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 11,318), I examine the influence of longitudinal measures across childhood of family structure duration and the number and timing of parent transitions (entrances and exits) on indicators of grade point average (GPA), college expectations, and suspension or expulsion in adolescence. I also examine whether parent gender moderates these effects. Results show that mother transitions during early childhood affect all outcomes, whereas time in mother‐absent families influences GPA and school discipline. I find evidence for parent gender differences in transition effects; mother transitions, especially early ones, have more severe consequences than father transitions.     

Women's Changing Attitudes Toward Divorce, 1974–2002: Evidence for an Educational Crossover

This article examines trends in divorce attitudes of young adult women in the United States by educational attainment from 1974 to 2002. Women with 4‐year college degrees, who previously had the most permissive attitudes toward divorce, have become more restrictive in their attitudes toward divorce than high school graduates and women with some college education, whereas women with no high school diplomas have increasingly permissive attitudes toward divorce. We examine this educational crossover in divorce attitudes in the context of variables correlated with women's educational attainment, including family attitudes and religion, income and occupational prestige, and family structure. We conclude that the educational crossover in divorce attitudes is associated most strongly with work and family structure variables.     

Parents’ Expectations About Childrearing After Divorce: Does Anticipating Difficulty Deter Divorce?

Divorce is costly for parents because of the challenges of meeting children’s economic and socioemotional needs after separation. Using the National Survey of Families and Households (N= 1,935), we investigate whether expected economic and parenting costs deter divorce. Mothers expect higher economic costs than fathers, whereas fathers expect more parenting difficulties. Most parents, however, expect high economic and parenting costs. In a large minority of families, mothers and fathers differ in their expected costs. Parenting costs deter divorce, but economic costs do not once other family characteristics are controlled. When parents disagree, mothers’ parenting concerns are a greater barrier to divorce than fathers’ concerns. Finally, parenting costs are a greater barrier to divorce for unhappy than happy couples.     

Stepfather families and the emotional well-being of adolescents

Although approximately one-third of all children born in the United States are expected to spend some time living in a married or cohabiting stepfamily, our understanding of the implications of stepfamilies for the well-being of youth remains incomplete. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this research investigates adolescent depressive symptomatology and suicide ideation in stepfather families, paying careful attention to variation in pathways of stepfamily formation. I test multiple theoretical explanations for the effects of family structure on adolescent emotional well-being, including perspectives emphasizing economic deprivation, socialization and social control, stress and instability, and community connections. I also explore the possibility that observed associations between family structure and youth well-being might be spuriously produced by the preexisting selective characteristics of stepfamilies. The results of this research point to a complex relationship between stepfamily formation and adolescent emotional well-being, suggesting both positive and negative effects.     

Gender and Age Differences in Child Adjustment to Parental Separation

Abstract

The present study examined gender and age differences in adjustment among children whose parents have separated. Measures designed specifically to assess family functioning during the divorce process (the Divorce Adjustment Inventory-Revised, and Child Divorce Adjustment Inventory), along with a measure of self-esteem and interviews with children, provide an in-depth exploration of the experience of families during the transitional period of separation. Results indicate that (1) parents of girls reported higher resolution of the separation, (2) high self-esteem for girls was mediated by residential parents' high socioeconomic status, (3) older children exhibited higher adjustment than younger children, and (4) father-headed families indicated higher adjustment before and after separation. Using a model of divorce as a process, results are discussed in relation to findings from studies of post-divorce and pre-separation families to provide a more complete picture of the divorce experience and child adjustment to that experience.     

The gendered division of labor and family outcomes in germany

The literature on the predictors of the division of household labor continues to expand, but the effect of this division on family outcomes has not been explored. Using the German SocioEconomic Panel (N= 628), I analyze the effect of men's participation in housework and child care on the likelihood of second birth and divorce. Fathers' greater relative child‐care time increases couples' odds of second birth, attenuating the negative effect of mothers' employment. Husbands' relative housework time is insignificant in predicting second birth or divorce among couples with at least one child, but increases the likelihood of divorce among childless couples. This is evidence that the division of domestic labor affects family outcomes, but effects differ depending on the outcome and presence of children.     

Divorce, family conflict, and adolescents' well-being

The relative effects of family conflict and divorce on the well-being of adolescents were examined in a longitudinal study of a heterogeneous community sample. Higher levels of family conflict were associated with increases in adolescents' depressed mood, anxiety, and physical symptoms over time. In contrast, neither recent divorce nor earlier divorce was associated with longitudinal changes in any health outcomes. Also, adolescents living in intact families with high conflict had significantly poorer well-being than those living in families of divorce with low conflict. Finally, the longitudinal effects of divorce and family conflict did not differ by age and sex, but Hispanic adolescents experienced more negative effects of family conflict than non-Hispanic whites, and the well-being of Asian adolescents was influenced more strongly by recent divorce.     

Stepmothers’ Role in Mediating Adverse Effects on Children of Divorce

Divorce and remarriage can be a stressful time for children: Stepmothers can aid in reducing negative repercussions. Effectively incorporating stepmothers into the family can aid in a healthy transition. Addressing role ambiguity, relationships, communication styles, and reorganization can help families avoid unnecessary stress during divorce and remarriage. Interventions that focus on increasing coping mechanisms and effective communication help reduce negative side effects and aid in the successful reorganization of the family following divorce or remarriage. Counselors can aid in this process by supporting families using structural family therapy (SFT) and suggesting interventions. When counselors and society support the diverse compositions of families, this reorganization can happen with less distress for the children involved.     

Telling the Story of Stepfamily Beginnings: The Relationship between Young-adult Stepchildren's Stepfamily Origin Stories and their Satisfaction with the Stepfamily

The current study adopts a narrative perspective in examining the content of 80 stepchildren's stepfamily origin stories. Results reveal five types of stepfamily origin stories: Sudden, Dark-sided, Ambivalent, Idealized, and Incremental. Results support the hypothesis that story type would predict differences in family satisfaction; stepchildren who described their stepfamily origins as Idealized were more satisfied than those whose origins were Dark-sided or Sudden. Overall, participants framed their stepfamily identity more positively when their stepfamily beginnings were characterized by closeness, friendship, and even expected ups and downs, rather than when they were left out of the process of negotiating or forming the stepfamily and when the beginnings were tainted by issues they considered to be dark. Stepparents or practitioners may benefit from these findings by examining the means by which stepparents may involve stepchildren in the process of stepfamily courtship, facilitate closeness, and set up realistic expectations for negotiating stepfamily life.     

Differential predictors of academic achievement: individual and familial factor interactions with community poverty

We present an analysis of the contexts within which adolescents graduate from high school and enroll in college. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health show that adolescents’ school engagement, maternal academic monitoring, and community poverty significantly interact to explain differences in high school graduation and college enrollment rates (n?=?7100). To examine this association, we performed weighted logistic regression analyses, controlling for gender, race, block level unemployment, and block level median income. Findings suggest that protective factors can help youth overcome the challenges associated with community poverty and achieve academically in low and medium levels of poverty, but that youth in high-poverty contexts may need more resources to reach higher levels of academic attainment.     

Breaking Up,Breaking Hearts? Characteristics of the Divorce Process and Well-Being After Divorce

This article expands existing research on divorce and mental health by considering the divorce process and how it relates to the postdivorce well-being of men and women. Drawing on gender role theories, we focus on conflict, duration of the divorce process, initiation, moving house, and feelings of (in)equity. Men and women aged 25 to 60 years who had divorced no more than 5 years were selected from the population-based survey Divorce in Flanders (DIF; N _sample = 728). Results of the multilevel regressions indicate that initiation, shared initiation, and a fair perception of the division at divorce relate to better mental health. Contrary to expectations, longer trajectories and trajectories characterized by conflict do not relate to worse mental health in the long run. A new partner seems to be the key for greater well-being after divorce.     

Great Expectations Unmet: The Impact of Adolescent Educational Expectations on Deviant Coping During the Transition to Adulthood

Previous research has shown that during adolescence, holding high expectations of college education serves as a protective factor for delinquency and substance use. Little is known whether the protective factor of college expectations extends into young adulthood, especially among ambitious youth who do not earn a degree. Using longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this research focuses on the longer term effects of adolescent educational expectations on deviant coping. This study finds that failing to realize realistically high expectations of college education during the transition to adulthood increases an individual's likelihood of deviant coping during the transition to adulthood.     

Stepchildren’s Communicative and Emotional Journey from Divorce to Remarriage: Predictors of Stepfamily Satisfaction

This study explores the emotional and communicative profiles of young adults who have experienced a parental divorce and the emergence of a stepfamily to better understand influences on stepfamily satisfaction. Results of regression analyses indicate that strong negative emotions experienced at the time of the divorce are a negative predictor of current stepfamily satisfaction, even after controlling for age at the time of the divorce. In addition, level of open self-disclosure to a stepparent, although not parents, is a positive predictor of current stepfamily satisfaction. Finally, the extent to which the father has now fully explained the circumstances of the divorce is a positive predictor of current stepfamily satisfaction, whereas the extent to which mother has now fully explained the circumstances of the divorce is a negative predictor of current stepfamily satisfaction. These findings are discussed and future directions for research on stepfamily interaction and satisfaction are offered.     

Future expectations of adolescents in residential care in Israel

The study examines the future expectations of adolescents in residential care facilities in Israel and their worries about the pending transition to independent living. The study examines the hypotheses that personal variables (e.g., gender, a personality trait of optimism) and social support variables (the support of family, peers and staff) predict their future expectations. 277 adolescents participated in the study. The self report questionnaire covered several areas including demographic background, optimism, family, peer and staff support, readiness to leave care and future expectations. Results indicate that most adolescents perceived their future positively. The most positive expectations were in the family and friends domains. About a third of the adolescents were worried or very worried about leaving care. Worries were not related to gender. Optimism, social support by mother and peers (but not staff) was positively correlated with future expectations. The findings suggest that there are areas of concern that should be addressed through programs to prepare youth for leaving care. Follow up and longitudinal studies are suggested.