Preliminary achievements of China's national economy development and family planning]

A preliminary view of the population control policies of the People's Republic of China is the subject of this report. The report maintains that population control policies are closely linked to economic growth and indicates that criticism by the West of these policies is unfounded. According to an investigation of 1000 married women of child-bearing age carried out in 1981, 19.1% of them have 1 child, 21.4% of them have 2, 49.5% have 3 and only 9.9% of them have no children. This would seem to refute the West's idea of the "1 child only" policy as strict and clear-cut. The report maintains that economic growth and family planning are functions of one another. Although China has made marked progress in population control, its population problem is still far from being resolved as population growth is still relatively high compared to productivity. The marriageable population is extremely high and increase in population create a burden on education, employment, transportation, welfare, housing and medicine each year. The trend in rural areas (which make up 80% of China's population) to have larger families to produce more labor must be reversed in order to make population control objectives feasible. Thus, the need for China to continue its efforts to promote rural economy and family planning must continue. The needs for improvement in promotion and family planning education as well as for improved medical conditions are also evident.     

Population quality must be improved to carry out the strategic goal of economic construction]

The poor population quality (quality of life of the population as a whole) of Zhejiang Province in southeast China and the imperative need for its improvement are the subject of this report. Its 40 million inhabitants have a life expectancy of 69 years. For every 1000 people there is only 1 doctor and 1.7 hospital beds. These figures are lower for all the other southeastern provinces. According to the 1982 census, there are 47 college graduates, 517 high school graduates, and 1779 middle school graduates for every 10,000 people. The quality of life of the population can be improved through increased productivity because there is a direct relationship between the 2. Although China already enjoys a high level of productivity, it is up to the government to concentrate its efforts on the quality of productivity through reform. China's political structure, its rules, regulations and conventions have contributed to making the economy backward. A substantial change within the social system is imperative to put China's economy on a more progressive footing. Moreover, efforts in family planning must continue. The current population growth rate is not commensurate with the economic growth rate. As population control and population quality are interrelated, a smaller population would mean a higher standard of living. The report concludes that in order to fulfill the strategic goal of economic construction quality is a task that cannot be postponed, since it concerns Zhejiang Province's economic projections, as well as the quality of the new labor force that will be in place by then.     

Farmers of Jin county want fewer children

The economic reform practiced in the vast rural areas in China gives a great impetus to the vigorous development of rural economy and the the rapid improvement of living standard. Meanwhile, reform pounds at the traditional childbearing ideas. The striking change in the childbearing attitudes of the farmers of the Jin County is a good example. As the farmers of the country are getting well-off when the commodity economy develops rapidly with the rural economic reforms, their childbearing attitudes change. Profound changes have taken place in their mode of production and their life style. The young couples of the county begin to seek small families instead of traditional big ones. They are convinced that under the new situation of reforms, the farmers of an old generation are in no way competent as the head of the family to guide production and therefore want to build their own small families by freeing themselves from the binds of the traditional patriarchal system. The increase in the cost of bringing up children and the economic loss resulting from the absence from work for looking after children constitute another reason to prefer a small family. The son is no more the only economic guarantee for the aged. As a result of the rapid development of the rural economy, a retirement system has been established among the farmers of the Jin county. "It is unreliable to expect that the son will support his aged parents. Now it is better to earn more money and the collective can be depended upon by the aged."     

Speech at the UN International Conference on Population,Mexico City,August, 1984

In seeking a solution to its population problem, China, as a developing socialist country, has been making unremitting efforts to develop economy while controlling the rapid growth. The objective is to control rapid population growth so that population growth may be in keeping with socioeconomic development and commensurate with utilization of natural resources and environmental protection. In the past decade, and particularly since 1979, China has made much progress in developing economy and gained remarkable successes in controlling population growth. The natural population growth rate dropped to 1.15% in 1983, from 2.089% in 1973. Living standards have improved with a gradual annual increase of per capita income. All this proves that the policy of promoting family planning to control population growth along with planned economic development is correct. In China family planning is a basic state policy. The government has advocated the practice of "1 couple, 1 child" since 1979. This does not mean that 1 couple could have 1 child only in every case. The government provides guidance for the implementation of family planning programs in the light of specific conditions such as economic developments, cultural background, population structure, and the wishes of the people in different localities. The requirements are more flexible in rural than in urban areas and more so among the people of national minorities than among the people of the Han Nationality. In rural areas, couples who have actual difficulties and want to have 2 children may have a 2nd birth with planned spacing. In carrying out its family planning program, China has consistently adhered to the principle of integrating state guidance with the masses' voluntariness. The government has always emphasized the importance of encouraging the people's own initiatives, through publicity and education, which is the key link in implementing the family planning program.     

A survey of fertility in specialized households in Tianjin city with one child in the countryside]

This report addresses the trend among specialized households which has evolved from the assumption that more children meant a happier life to the opinion that a smaller number of children will have a better upbringing. It addresses problems in family planning and ways to improve these problems as well. Since the economic reform which drastically changed the economic system in China (especially in rural areas), the ideas of the people regarding family planning began to change just as their lifestyles were changing. When production had been controlled by communes, everybody received the same income and thus, low incentive resulted in low production. Life was difficult and people still retained the traditional notion that a larger family guaranteed happiness as well as security for their old age. Moreover, women were tied to the home and were economically dependent upon their husbands. The new economic reforms have brought about changes in these attitudes. Women now want less children and a higher quality of life. They have bettered their status in society and now have higher incomes. They are encouraged to work more and children are less of a concern. In one case, a woman was kicked out of her own house by her mother-in-law for giving birth to a girl. Later, the woman purchased the house after raising a protest in the village. She has now gained the respect of her mother-in-law who lives in the house and takes care of the child. Old notions, such as those maintaining that low productivity requires more labor and that a larger income will permit a larger family, are now less accepted. Today's trend focuses more on improvements in family planning through better promotional campaigns and aims to enhance productivity through government assistance.     

Grasp the work of family planning by unifying thinking and stabilizing the policy

The China Population Information and Research Center reported that in 1988 the number of childbearing women between 20 and 49 was 4.65 million above 1987, but the population growth rate was 0.19 lower than in 1987. Controlling the population is still a difficult problem. The 3rd baby boom of New China; economic, cultural, social, and other factors; and the uneven progress of family planning are cited as causes of the lack of control. The 13th Party's Congress in 1989 plans to work to reform family planning and control population growth. In particular, late marriages and childbearing will be promoted; in cities, one-child-per- couple will be policy; in rural areas, only girl households will be allowed another child only after several years; local family planning regulations will be supported; and research on family planning and safer, longer acting contraceptives will be financed.     

Irrational international economic order is an obstacle

China is a socialist and developing country. As the most populous country in the world, China has a population now of over 1 billion, making up more than 1/5 of the total world population. However, China has a rather poor economic and educational foundation to start with. This is particularly true in the rural areas, where 80% of the total population lives. The problem of population increase and decrease in arable land has grown more acute. Hence, the Chinese Government has been promoting family planning since the 1970s. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China explicitly stipulates that "the state promotes family planning so that population growth may fit the plan for economic and social development." Thanks to the implementation of the basic state policy of family planning, the blind population growth is turning into a planned one. It is estimated by the fertility rate of the 1970s that 200 million births have been averted during the last 16 years. Thus, China has made contributions to the stability of the world's population. Were China to allow its population to grow blindly instead of having practiced family planning over the past 10 years, the world population would be substantially over 5 billion by the middle of this year.     

Grasping economic reform and family planning simultaneously]

This report aims at proposing ways the Chinese government can raise productivity levels and living standards while promoting the objectives of family planning. During the 1970's, family planning was heavily emphasized. Every factory, commune, and government agency had a specialized group of personnel responsible for family planning. Since the time of economic reform, this group has been vastly minimized because of the central government's demands for reduction of "unproductive" personnel. Thus, with economic reform came a sizeable obstacle to the family planning campaign. The report takes Hong Lai County as an example of recent undertakings to balance the new reforms and the family planning objectives. Hong Lai County, one of the poorest counties in the Sichuan Province, located in western central Chna, has seen a growth in GNP of 100% since the economic reform of 1979. At the same time, the government of the county has had to work extremely hard to promote family planning, especially in rural areas where these objectives are more difficult to reinforce. The county government, in an effort to encourage these objectives, has set up programs of compensation in the form of special allowances and bonuses. Moreover, eucational programs have proven effective in this area. The report indicates that much success has been achieved in the areas of education through promotional campaigns and vocational training which have, in turn, increased productivity levels and living standards.     

韩国人口政策及其对中国农村人口政策的启示

韩国的人口政策经历了由控制人口增长的计划生育政策到鼓励人口增长的新人口政策的转变,成功控制了人口的快速增长。缓解了人口与经济、社会资源、环境之间的矛盾,但也引起了人口老龄化、出生婴儿性别比失调等一系列社会问题。这些社会问题如今也正在中国农村上演。如能借鉴立法先行、大力发展社会福利事业、善于运用经济杠杆等经验,对维持中国农村人口的低出生率,抑制出生婴儿性别比例失调和人口老龄化的加剧具有积极的意义。     

Poverty in the Philippines: the impact of family size

The people of Asia are beginning to realize that lower fertility translates into increased family wealth and educational attainment. This is the message that population and development efforts have been focusing on. In the Philippines, the goal is to lower fertility with a strategy based on the assumption that increased capacity of the economy will support a growing population at a higher standard of living. In the Philippines, over 33% of the households have 7 or more family members, while 20% of urban and 27% of rural households have 4 or more. The risk of poverty associated with increased number of children are 44-50% for 1 child and 60-78% for those with 5. Households spend up to 10% of their total income to raise 1 child, 18% for 2, and 26% for 4 children. Because many families lack the resources to raise children the per child share drops dramatically with each child, a household with 4 children spends 25% less per child than does 1 with 2 children. Occupation also affects income as the highest poverty rates are among heads of household who are: laborers (60%) and agricultural workers (73%). The best solution is an integrated approach with increases in family planning, education, and agricultural reform.     

Change of population policy and the population situation in China]

A correct population policy is very crucial to the solution of the population problem, economic development, and social progress. The real situation in China now is a large population, a high rate of population growth, and low level of productivity. Facing this situation, China's population policy should include control of population growth in quantity, a promotion of population quality, and a match between population growth and social and economic development for the final realization of the Four Modernizations. In recent years, under the leadership of the National Committee on Family Planning, together with cooperation from various offices at the local level, a great change has taken place in China's population situation. The fertility rate has declined gradually, and late marriage, delayed births, and a reduced number of births have also become popular. A change in the age structure of the population has also slowed the pace of population growth. A reduction in the ratio of women of childbearing age is also helpful in the control of population growth, and the natural growth rate for the population has declined. This change shows that family planning is working in China and great results have been achieved. To come closer to the national goal of population control, practical work should be focused on rural areas. The rural population constitutes about 80% of total population and the fertility rate in rural areas is much higher than that of the cities. If population control can be achieved in the rural areas, the overall goal of population control for the country can then be achieved more easily.     

Agricultural backwardness being the fundamental cause of rapid population growth]

We have been an agricultural country for more than 2000 years. The low level of mechanization and dependence of manpower in our agriculture required a large quantity of labor. Therefore, development of Chinese feudal society was closely related to the population growth. After the establishment of a new socialistic China, the rapid development of agricultural production resulted in our 1st population boom (1952 to 1957). Later the rapid development of heavy industry demanded the transfer of a large amount of labor from agriculture. The shortage of labor in China caused reductions in agriculture and a 2nd population boom. The backward nature of China's agriculture requires increased labor input to increase production. On the other hand, the increased productivity does not match the demands of the increased population. Consequently, living standards in the society decrease and the population growth slows. The emphasis on population control and family planning is indeed beneficial to China's economy. The fundamental solution of China's population problem must rely on a technical revolution in agriculture and increased agricultural productivity.     

市场化养老模式研究——上海市亲和源老年社区个案及启示

20世纪70年代,中国迫于巨大的人口压力开始实行严格的计划生育政策。这一政策的实施,一方面使巨大的人口规模得到了有效控制,取得了举世瞩目的成就,另一方面也使得中国老年型社会在经济社会尚不发达的情况下先期而至。从未来经济社会发展情况和人口发展趋势来看,传统养老模式将面临前所未有的压力,甚至陷入无法超越的困境。在这种情况下,寻求新的养老模式成为学术界和政府共同关注的问题,而上海市亲和源老年社区以市场化运营方式对养老问题所做的探索,无疑给人们带来了诸多启示。这是一种有可能从个案走向模式的案例,它可能成为解决中国未来养老问题的一条重要途径。     

城市人口和计划生育工作新机制研究

多年来,我国人口和计划生育工作的重点、难点一直在农村。而城市人口和计划生育工作一直走在全国前列,不仅有效控制了人口过快增长,为全国人口控制目标的实现作出了积极贡献,而且创造了许多好经验,对农村起到很好的示范、带头和辐射作用,为统筹解决人口问题打下了良好的基础。但是随着外部环境和工作任务、要求的变化,随着社会主义市场经济体制的建立和城市经济、社会的迅速发展,城市化进程的大大加快,城市计划生育工作开始面临许多新情况、新问题,必须加快改革与创新的步伐。     

A brief analysis of population pressure on agricultural production under the new situation]

China's agricultural industry is currently undergoing a gradual transition from its previously restrictive self-sufficient natural economy to a more commercialized system of production. This transition has already effected an increase in China's agricultural productivity. Moreover, efforts toward planned population growth have made significant headway in China's rural areas. With all these changes, the large, unskilled Chinese farm family is currently facing mounting economic troubles as the new system of commercialized farming now rewards the technically skilled and economically efficient farmer. The problems facing many large farm families in China's north central province of Shaanxi are discussed, as well as the deficiencies of the system of farmland apportionment which awards farmland according to family size, instead of family capital resources and productivity.     

Economic development with limited supplies of family labor: Chinese peasant families in balancing demographic and economic requisites

Family planning (FP) in rural China, particularly the ramifications of the 1-child policy, has profound implications and ramifications for family-centered social and economic life in addition to demographic control. Under a constitutionally endorsed policy of strict birth control, favorable economic opportunities coexisted with the problem of familial labor shortages. Recent reform policies have led to a more relaxed FP environment. The Chinese state is in a dilemma between the need to allow peasant's autonomy in determining the familial work situation and the population pressure on the limited cultivated land. The Chinese experience of rural reform is examined in terms of the complex relationship between population change and economic development which are influenced by the production and welfare activities of the peasant family. The theoretical argument is that a family reliant strategy of economic reform undercuts the effectiveness of population control programs. The ultimate solution lies with sustained industrialization with high labor absorption. National trends and the Dahe People's Commune/Township experience are analyzed. Discussion is focused on the dilemma of FP and family production, old and new evidence of family size and economic performance, welfare outcome of family size, the role of the state in altering the demographic balance sheet, and the strategic response of peasant families to bring families of old designs back and urban migration and proletarianization. It is concluded that there is growing understanding that the causal relationships between population growth and economic development do not clearly support universal population control. Human social organization, not the man/land ratio, shapes the consequences of population growth. The implications for the Malthusian vs. Marxian debate for developing countries are that the resources/population imbalance needs to consider more carefully the human organizational factors. Mao's notions that a revolutionary transformation of the social organization of production in China would resolve overpopulation have since been rectified by opposing ideological positions: changing the basic mode of production through institutional decollectivization and checking population growth with the 1-child policy. This dilemma in rural areas translates to greater productivity and diversification with Chinese families having abundant adult labor and secured by the number of sons. It is difficult to substantiate the benefit of small families for peasants theoretically. Political rewards have been curtailed by economic declines. The peasant family has adapted by reconstituting old family forms and kin networks and by out-migration and nonagricultural employment.     

关于中国富余劳动力的思考

富余劳动力主要包括农村剩余劳动力和城市下岗、失业人口两大部分。在中国经济总量不断上升的同时,就业问题已是困扰中国长远发展的难题。之所以产生GDP增长与失业率上升相伴的喜忧参半的结果,主要原因是:第一,我国人口基数过大,增长过快,是富余劳动力的源泉。第二,经济体制是富余劳动力存在的保障。     

Does family planning work in a Chinese way

The demographic and economic characteristics of China make it necessary to do family planning work in China in a Chinese way. Special characteristics of China and corresponding strategies are detailed 1) China is rather underproductive and underdeveloped, with a huge population, whose growth must be curtailed while industrial and agricultural production is enhanced. 2) In the next 10 years, a large number of young people will center childbearing age, prompting a government policy favoring late marriage and one child per couple. 3) China is large and heterogeneous, and regional authorities should have some population policymaking functions to take sociocultural differences into account. 4) Male child preference ideology in rural areas has been gently combated with a resulting increase in family planning rate from 65.1% to 74.2% from 1979 to 1983. Family planning authorities have made considerable progress, as demonstrated by figures such as a drop of women's total fertility rate from 5.68 in the 60s to 2.07 in the 70s. The task at hand remains large: the population at the end of 1983 was 1,024,950,000. However, family planning is an element of state policy, the marriage law, and the constitution, and mored an more, societal ideology. Government policy equates family planning with child wellness and societal welfare and attempts supportiveness of couples showing positive birth limiting attitudes. An ample system of family planning programs and resource persons furnishes education, a variety of high quality methods are available, and contraceptive research is some of the best in the world.     

Agricultural production responsibility system and the work of family planning in the rural area]

With the establishment of the agricultural production responsibility system, the entire agricultural management and economic system has undergone great changes, and family planning in rural areas has met with many difficulties. Because of this responsibility system, households with more manpower seem to become wealthy more rapidly than others. An existing belief among the rural population is that more children will provide a larger labor force and thus more income. Birth control and family planning are therefore becoming more difficult. In order to change existing beliefs, a comprehensive ideological education for peasants is needed so that they may understand the question of birth control from the viewpoints of national interests. Economic rewards and administrative restrictions may be used as necessary birth control measures. Agricultural production and family planning can be managed well if there is close contact and cooperation between the cadres and the masses. Extra care and benefits should be given to women of childbearing age who undergo birth control operations and agree to a single child in each household. Welfare programs for the masses, such as kindergartens and nursing homes must be established in order to reduce their worries. In addition, efforts are needed to study the new situation and solve new problems. The goal of controlling the rural population growth should be achiefed through practical work and experience.     

计划生育利益导向政策对家庭发展的影响效应分析

我国计划生育利益导向政策可大致分为早期主要控制人口数量的利益导向政策和当前倾向于综合治理的利益导向政策两个时期。本文在回顾计划生育利益导向政策的演变历程的基础上,利用1991-2010年我国29个省的面板数据实证分析了计划生育利益导向政策对家庭发展的影响,研究发现,相比较于以控制人口数量为主的计划生育利益导向政策,倾向于综合治理的计划生育利益导向政策对生育水平的影响效应更强,并且更有利于家庭经济状况的改善。在倾向于综合治理的计划生育利益导向政策的实施下,家庭会调整发展策略,通过风险外部转移和加强人力资本投资等多种方式,缓冲由于子女数量减少导致的不确定风险增加。