中国"独生父母"婚育模式初探:以上海为例

自2001年开始,我国第一代独生子女正逐渐进入一个婚育高峰.目前,"独生子女养育子女"社会现象已在数百万城市家庭中成为现实,约占同龄婴幼儿家庭的34%左右,未来十年里,"独生子女养育子女"的新家庭将以千万计.据本研究1828份在上海的问卷调查结果显示,独生父母在婚育观、家庭结构和抚养模式上具有自己的特点,同时独生父母也与非独生父母存在不少共性.研究在分析独生父母现象之后,进一步探讨了该现象对整个社会的影响.     

农村独生子女家庭养老风险分析

受独生子女及其家庭本身特征和农村社会经济现实状况的深刻影响,独生子女家庭客观上已经形成在养老上的固有风险。子女的唯一性弱化了养老风险的分散功能,子女的流动、生命存活风险以及因人格缺陷而产生的道德风险都会直接导致赡养风险的发生,老年父母自我养老能力的不足将使其晚年生活更加艰难。为规避和化解其养老风险,应该以政府责任体现为主,独生子女家庭提升自身养老能力为辅。     

完善政策体系解决计生家庭困难

近年来,河南省禹州市委、市政府进一步完善奖励、减免、救助、保障四大政策体系,从根本上解决广大计生家庭生产、生活中的困难,其主要做法是: 1.奖励政策。对全市领取《独生子女父母光荣证》的独生子女户继续以银行存折的形式兑现每月10元奖励费;对领取《独生子女父母光荣证》的独男户子女年满18周岁时,给予父母1000元的奖励,对年满18周岁的独女户给予2000元的奖励;对符合生育二孩条件而自愿领取《独生子女父母光荣证》的夫妇一次性奖励2000元。 2.减免政策。教育部门对农村领取《独生子女父母光荣证》的家庭和政策内双女结扎户子女免除九年义务教育期     

农村第一代已婚独生子女父母养老心态及其影响因素分析

基于2011年江苏、四川两省720户中老年农民调查数据,以同龄的非独生子女父母为参照,对农村第一代已婚独生子女父母的养老心态及其影响因素进行探索性分析。结果表明,在对待自己养老问题的担心上,独生子女父母的担心程度略高于非独生子女父母。而在子女能否赡养、经济上能否支持、生病时能否照顾上,独生子女父母的担心程度均低于非独生子女父母,在年老时是否感到孤独寂寞上,独生子女父母担心程度略高于非独生子女父母。对独生子女父母养老总体心态的多因素方差分析发现,婚姻状况、亲子关系、子女婚后支持变化、居住条件及生活满意度等变量可能是显著影响研究对象养老心态的重要因素。     

独生子女家庭结构演变与养老方案选择研究①——以安徽省为例

独生子女家庭关系简单、脆弱,具有很强的风险性,为此引起学界和政府高度关注。文章利用2010年全国第六次人口普查数据资料,利用生命表方法构建独生子女家庭生命表．并推算丧子家庭、丧偶家庭、单人家庭等各类家庭结构演变趋势。得出：独生子女家庭中,丧子家庭在子女60岁时达到高峰,比例达到3．1％,其中丧子的父母单人家庭比例达到高峰值2．6％,丧子的父母空巢家庭在独生子女50岁达到高峰1．1％：独生子女单亲家庭（丧父或丧母）在独生子女55岁时达到峰值50％。不同的独生子女家庭,有着不同的养老需求,政府应该根据不同的家庭属性设置多样化的养老支持方案。     

关于独生子女家长对其子女期望的社会心理分析

随着计划生育工作的深入开展,一对夫妇只生一个孩子的政策已逐渐为人们所接受。因此,独生子女家庭越来越多,独生子女的成长已成为社会和家庭普遍关心的问题。父母对子女寄以无限的希望,“子女扬名,光宗耀祖”是许多父母梦寐以求的。探讨独生子女家长对子女的期望心理,对做好计划生育工作是有很大益处的。为此,我们于六月十日至二十四日对江苏省宜兴市岂亭乡的部分厂矿和村落的独生子女家长进行了调查,通过对调查结果的分析,我们更加感到研究独生子女家长对其子女的期望心理是很有必要的。     

农村50岁以上独生子女父母与子女经济互动及养老预期——基于对全国5县调查

根据对全国5县(区)抽样调查,农村50岁以上独生子女老年父母家庭有近6成空巢。尽管这些父母的大多数觉得2个及以上孩子对于养老来说更好,但依靠子女养老和多代同堂观念已大为削弱。这些家庭代际间财富流动以子女对父母反哺为主。6成独生子女父母赞成与子女分开住,即使子女今后搬到城镇住,也有近一半人明确表示不会到子女家住,但他们同时并未显示出对社会养老保障的信任,这种窘境使这些曾为人口控制做出突出贡献的老人面临严峻的养老挑战。     

关于小学独生子女教育情况的调查(下)

(三) 影响学生德、智、体诸方面发展的部分因素: 一、独生子女家庭的人均收入高 为了便于比较,我们向学生家长作书面调查时,讲明了在计算每人平均收入时,不应包括各种奖金和副食补贴,也要从工资总收人中扣除供养老人的费用。这样调查结果表明,独生子女家庭人均收入普遍较高,约为32.34元,而双子女和多子女家庭分别为27.79元和26.53元,均低于独生子女家庭人均收入水平五、六元。人均收入在35元以上的独生子女家庭占到38.4％,而双子女和多子女家庭分别占5.4％和9.1％,相距较大;同样的,人均收入在25元以下的独生子女家庭仅占6.6％,而双子女和多子女家庭所占的比例却分别高达38.4％和55.3％。     

家庭养老、父母健康与成年子女劳动供给的经济分析

本文的研究目标在于利用CHNS数据,将同一家庭内部子女样本和父母（大于55岁）样本进行配对．探讨老年父母健康对成年子女劳动供给的影响。首先建立理论框架,其次利用Heckman两阶段模型,在控制个人特征和家庭特征的基础上,分析老年父母健康对成年子女劳动供给的影响。研究结果表明,父母健康不良将导致子女劳动供给的减少,且这种影响存在性别差异和城乡差异,但均不显著。同时在存在兄弟姐妹的情况下,其影响程度减小。     

独生子女与非独生子女家庭老年人养老意愿及其影响因素研究

本研究利用2014年"中国老年社会追踪调查"数据分别考察独生子女家庭和非独生子女家庭老年人的养老观念和养老意愿,重点分析两类老年人养老意愿的影响因素及其差异。结果表明大部分老年人仍然认同"养儿防老"的观念,认为养老责任主要应由子女承担,在家庭中养老仍是最为老年人接受的方式。与非独生子女家庭老年人相比,独生子女家庭老年人更偏好独立居住,对子女养老责任的期待更低,但对子女精神支持的需求更高,同时更加企盼来自政府和制度的养老支持。个人因素和家庭因素共同塑造了老年人的养老意愿,但对两类老年人的影响不同。从个人因素看,受教育程度的高低会更为显著地影响非独生子女家庭老年人的养老意愿,特别是影响其对机构养老的态度。从家庭特征看,对独生子女家庭老年人而言,配偶发挥的作用似乎超过了子女,对其养老意愿产生了更为重要的影响,"夫妻健全"的独生子女父母更偏好独立养老。"养儿"对两类老年人均有影响,但意义不同。对于非独生子女家庭老年人而言,有无儿子显著影响的是"在自己家还是子女家养老"的家庭内部决策;对于独生子女家庭老年人而言,有无儿子则显著影响了其养老地点在家庭和社会之间的抉择。     

关注一孩政策后续效应：老年人晚年照料意愿及其影响因素分析

伴随着迅速的社会变迁,老年人晚年照料的被期待支持者与实际支持者之间出现了些许矛盾。基于CLASS 的调查数据,对老年人晚年照料负责的主体划分为四类,分别是正式支持、子代支持、非典型自我支持和协同支持。通过交叉分析和逻辑回归发现,虽然独生子女父母和非独生子女父母认为晚年照料由正式支持来负责的比例都不高,但是独生子女父母在该项的责任认定方面明显高于非独生子女父母。相比于非独生子女父母对于子代支持责任的依赖,独生子女父母对于照料责任的认定比较分散,呈现出正式支持、子代支持、非典型自我支持和协同支持平分秋色的特点。个人基本特征、经济状况因素、健康状况因素以及生活态度因素等变量均对老年人晚年照料责任意愿的认定影响显著。     

Parental transfers and the labor supply of children

To finance their personal consumption, children may rely on transfers in the form of pocket money made by their parents and on personal resources earned from labor market activities. In this paper that focuses on the interaction between these two sources of income, we consider a model of parental transfer where the child can choose his own income through labor supply. The parent commits to a transfer amount that the child takes as given. For our empirical analysis, we use a cross-sectional French survey that includes detailed information about pocket money from parents to schoolchildren. Using a maximum-likelihood method, we estimate a simultaneous-equations model and find that parental transfers do not significantly influence the child's labor supply.     

Intersex mental health and social support options in pediatric endocrinology training programs

The birth of a child with an intersex condition is often an emotionally stressful event for parents. Preparation and ongoing support systems could be beneficial to both parents and children and would alleviate some of the shame and isolation associated with intersex conditions. To assess the extent to which psychological support is available, a short e-mail survey on this topic was sent to the directors of 50 pediatric endocrinology fellowship training programs (PEFTPs), who are most likely to evaluate and treat intersex children and their parents. Of the 29 PEFTPs that responded, 69% offer psychological support and 58% have a mental health specialist on staff. However, only 19% of patients or families receive emotional support during diagnosis and only 15% receive support after diagnosis. We found two barriers that prevent patients and families from receiving psychological help from their intersex care team. First, there is a lack of training for mental health professionals regarding the needs of intersex patients and families. Second, some families refuse help even though it is offered. This study reveals that further research is needed to overcome these two barriers regarding mental health treatment of intersex patients and families.     

Federal financing of child care: Alternative approaches and economic implications

This paper surveys alternative approaches to financing child care at the federal level and discusses their economic implications with respect to female labor force participation, fertility, child care demand and supply, and poverty. The current system of federal support for child care is seen to consist of a series of overlapping programs that tend to create inefficiencies and inequities in the distribution of child care benefits. Four basic principles of an ideal child care system are outlined, and a general two-tiered system of support is proposed that would satisfy these four principles. The two-tiered system is centered on a refundable tax credit considerably more progressive than the current child care tax credit. A simulation analysis indicates that the proposed refundable tax credit would not cost much more than many of the more popular child care bills currently being debated in Congress.     

Intersex Mental Health and Social Support Options in Pediatric Endocrinology Training Programs

ABSTRACT

The birth of a child with an intersex condition is often an emotionally stressful event for parents. Preparation and ongoing support systems could be beneficial to both parents and children and would alleviate some of the shame and isolation associated with intersex conditions. To assess the extent to which psychological support is available, a short e-mail survey on this topic was sent to the directors of 50 pediatric endocrinology fellowship training programs (PEFTPs), who are most likely to evaluate and treat intersex children and their parents. Of the 29 PEFTPs that responded, 69% offer psychological support and 58% have a mental health specialist on staff. However, only 19% of patients or families receive emotional support during diagnosis and only 15% receive support after diagnosis. We found two barriers that prevent patients and families from receiving psychological help from their intersex care team. First, there is a lack of training for mental health professionals regarding the needs of intersex patients and families. Second, some families refuse help even though it is offered. This study reveals that further research is needed to overcome these two barriers regarding mental health treatment of intersex patients and families.     

The value and cost of children

Recent research on actual and perceived benefits and costs of children to their parents in both developed and less developed countries is summarized. Such figures and research cannot only help predict fertility behavior but can also provide data for welfare departments figuring support costs, courts setting support costs, and government planners allocating resources. Findings on costs and satisfactions from several major surveys are presented and then actual costs in the U.S. are presented in a series of tables. Research indicates that efforts to popularize small families could well take an economic approach - developing social security systems for the aged, substituting mother's for children's work in developing countries. Compulsory education might also help. 1 researcher suggests publicizing exact costs of raising a child. A survey in Hawaii found that parents uniformly underestimated the direct costs of each child. Also, couples might be most receptive to family planning during the years when economic costs are highest.     

中国城市家庭的代际情感交流--基于独生子女生命历程视角的实证分析

情感交流是家庭代际关系中较难衡量、研究也相对薄弱的一个层面,父母子女间的亲密交往和情感沟通不仅有利于增进家庭成员的健康,也有助于家庭和社会的和谐稳定。文章利用全国抽样调查数据,基于独生子女的生命历程视角,从方式、强度、内容和方向四个维度,实证分析中国城市家庭的代际情感交流状况,特别关注独生子女和非独生子女的差异,以及子女生命历程中重要事件的影响。本研究发现,总体而言独生子女与父母的代际情感交流更密切,但交流方式与强度受到居住距离和流动特征的影响;就业、婚育事件虽会降低青年与父母同住的可能性,但也会增加见面和通讯频率。父母的资源和需求等特征对代际情感交流有显著影响。     

The demand for nonrelative child care among families with infants and toddlers: A double-hurdle approach

Despite the increasing prevalence of nonparental child care, many parents in the United States care exclusively for their young children, even when both parents work. We examine reasons for non-consumption of child care by estimating double-hurdle, tobit and dominance models of the demand for nonrelative child care. Our results indicate that parents' decision whether to use any nonrelative child care is guided by different considerations than the decision of how much care to use. Furthermore, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that some parents are not interested in nonrelative care, regardless of its price or nonmaternal income. Received: 27 January 2000/Accepted: 20 June 2001     

儿童照料与二孩生育意愿 ——来自上海的证据

本文围绕一项针对上海市育龄女性的生育意愿调查,分别使用二分和有序Logit方法分析儿童照顾对上海市育龄女性的二孩生育意愿的影响。研究发现当育龄女性能够从家庭内和社会中获得更多孩子照料的时间支持时,她们有更高的二孩生育意愿,也会伴有更明确的二孩生育规划;双独家庭能够从父辈获得更多的经济、时间上的帮助,因此他们要比单独家庭和双非家庭更愿意再生一个孩子;居住于上海市城区的女性从某种程度上更易获得孩子的照料资源,有更多的优质教育资源可供选择,因此她们的二孩生育意愿高于居住于郊区的女性。此外,本文通过是否采用了避孕措施对二孩生育的意愿程度做了进一步区分,结果发现当第一个孩子主要是由孩子父母承担照料工作的时候,女性存在二孩生育意愿的程度是最低的,祖辈照料对二孩生育意愿程度的积极影响也明显低于社会性照料,此现象在上海市户籍的女性中体现尤为明显。最后为纠正自选择偏差问题,本文使用倾向值匹配方法(PSM)进一步验证了与首孩性别相比,首孩的抚养成本与接受照料情况显然对二孩生育意愿的影响程度更大。因此,本文认为加大公共托育服务的供给、为育龄女性提供高质量的0-3岁婴幼儿社会照料支持是提高二孩生育意愿的最有效政策。