Increasing Childlessness in Germany and Japan: Toward a Childless Society?

Abstract: This paper focuses on childlessness in Germany and Japan and its sociological meanings in family formation in postmodern societies. First, it shows the trends of fertility decline and increasing childlessness, and clarifies the similarities and differences in both countries, by comparing parity composition, educational attainment, and other socioeconomic correlates of childlessness. Second, using the data of attitudinal surveys, such as the 2003 Population Policy Acceptance Study (PPAS) in Germany and the 13th National Fertility Survey (JNFS; 2005) in Japan, the reasons for having no children are observed. Third, referring to the discussions of German scholars, it tries to explain the sociological meanings of childlessness and to describe the development toward a childless society (even if it's demographically not sustainable) as one of the possible consequences of the Second Demographic Transition. Important findings are as follows: (1) In Germany the fertility decline began early in the mid-1960s but in Japan later from mid-1970s so that the increase of childlessness has been a little delayed. The proportion of childless women in Western Germany increased to 28% for the 1967 cohort. In Japan, it has increased to 12.7% for the 1960 cohort, but is expected to reach 30% for the 1970 cohort. (2) The educational gap in childlessness is clearly observed in Germany; however, this is not so simple in Japan. Corresponding with the increase of childlessness, the desired number of children in average is declining. The emergence of a child-free culture is observed in Germany by PPAS, but not yet in Japan by JNFS. (3) Polarization may proceed further in both countries, between childless people and people with many children.     

Does ethnic origin determine integration success? A comparison of immigration policies in Germany and Japan

The paper analyzes public policy and public opinion responses toward immigrants in Germany and Japan, two countries whose immigration policies have relied on blood purity (jus sanguinis). The paper retraces the rationale for jus sanguinis and contends that it was adopted at the turn of the century in both countries out of political convenience. The principles and goals of immigration policies are compared cautioning that better principles must not mean better outcomes.

It is reiterated that Germany has made a politically motivated move away from the ethnic monocultural concept, whereas Japan still hangs on more or less to the old model of silent and subtle assimilation. The more dissuasive Japanese model of tight immigration control, deportation and monocultural assimilation isthen compared to the more permissive German immigration model. A comparison of identity discourses in the form of Japanese Nihonjinron and German Leitkultur shows that both countries struggle with identifying and asserting their core values and that this has a negative impact on integration issues. The paper concludes that Germany has failed to bear the full consequences of its ambitious plans by taking into account the values, beliefs and worldviews of its immigrants, whereas Japan continues to treat immigrants as temporary guests denying any need for long-term integration.     

A comparative assessment of public opinion toward immigrants and immigration policies

"This article is part of a larger study of public attitudes toward immigration in seven countries that historically and currently have had different policies and practices vis-a-vis immigration. The countries involved are Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Japan and the United States. The time frame for which most of the public opinion data will be reported is from 1970 through 1995. The data have been collected from national surveys that were conducted in each of the countries."     

Illegal migrant laborers in Japan

"The purpose of this article is to describe the problem of illegal labor migration into Japan. It begins with a view of the current situation of illegal laborers in Japan--their numbers, their legal status, and their working and living conditions. The principal issues affecting the development of Japanese policy toward illegal foreign laborers are then discussed, and finally some alternatives are considered." Data are from a variety of published sources and concern the period 1984-1989.     

Language Learning in the Process of Refugee Resettlement: A Case Study Comparing Conditions in Germany and Japan

Abstract The difficulties encountered in the resettling of refugees in a host country arise from the following sources. The first source of difficulty involves so-called personal factors which stem from the character and experience of the individual refugee. For example, these include past experiences or experiences encountered during flight from the home country, family-background, religion, age, sex, educational level, occupation, etc. The second source pertains to the circumstances surrounding the process of resettlement (e.g. level of assistance offered by the host country, cultural differences between the home and host country, etc.). The third sorce of differences arise from the level of communication between the refugee and the new social environment (for example, the possibility of establishing social contacts, access to various kinds of information, etc.). In this article some characteristics of the language-learning process are discussed with the inclusion of several case-studies from Germany and Japan. It is noted that Germany appears to provide better assistance in language-learning. On the other hand, from the point of view of Indochinese refugees, Japan is more similar culturally and socially. The questions of how language-acquisition can best be achieved, as well as the ways in which the situation of refugees in Germany and Japan can best be improved are discussed.     

Between reforms and birth rates: Germany, Japan, and family policy discourse

This paper examines the development of employment-oriented family policy in Germany and Japan, two countries united by conservative welfare legacies and very low birthrates, through a close analysis of discourse. Why have recent reforms in Germany moved well beyond those in Japan despite remarkably similar “human capital” discourses? The relative strength of interpretative patterns—in this case, discursive patterns that successfully frame family policy reform as an economic imperative—and the role of employers are identified as critical explanatory factors. Further comparative attention is called to the role of the state as a guarantor of new family policy entitlements.     

Prevalence surveys of problem and pathological gambling in Europe: The cases of Germany,Holland and Spain

In the 1960s and 1970s, many European countries legalized several forms of gambling, especially slot machines, lotteries, casinos and bingo, in order to control illegal gambling and to obtain tax revenues for government. In this paper, we examine the status of research on problem and pathological gambling in three European countries: Germany, Holland and Spain. The results of the studies as well as the relationship between these studies and the expanding gaming industries, attitudes toward gambling in the general population, and the regulation and control of gaming in each country are discussed.     

The fatal affinity of the ‘Sonderweg’ revisited: The diffusion of emergency powers in Germany,Japan and Korea (1871–1987)

Many authoritarian regimes in Asia have utilized emergency powers to legitimize their measures of suppressing political opponents and maintaining power. In opposition to previous interpretations that categorize Asian experiences as ‘exceptional cases’ when compared to ‘normal’ Western liberal democracies, this article suggests that this issue should be viewed within the context of the broader ‘affinity’ of the ‘Sonderweg’ phenomenon. The paper compares Germany, Japan and Korea by examining the complex ‘diffusion’ processes of constitutional emergency powers and also by illuminating systemic affinities and fundamental differences. It argues that elites and technocrats in Germany, Japan and Korea exhibited diverging patterns in adopting, filtering and utilizing these constitutional powers.     

When the main job tasks are perceived to be ‘irrelevant’ in the workplace: the internal uselessness of corporate social responsibility work in Japan

ABSTRACT

Despite a symbolic shift toward ‘emotional taint’ in dirty work literature, the role of the workplace has not been studied in relation to socially admired professions, such as corporate social responsibility (CSR) work. This article carries out an in-depth, critical examination of CSR as an emotionally tainted occupation in Japan. Its findings, substantiated by an analysis of 34 CSR workers’ rhetoric, help conceptualise ‘internal uselessness’. This emerges when workers feel their organisations publicly foster an image of their work that is decoupled from its internal reality, assigning them chief tasks they consider irrelevant. This leads to negative consequences that damage their workplace social relationships, professional aspirations and emotional well-being. The findings ultimately show that these CSR workers in Japan attempt to counterbalance internal uselessness through a social quest with peers outside their workplace, but also manage their emotions by rationalising their job status as inescapable, influenced by situated commitment norms.     

磁悬浮交通的商业化前景

简要介绍了德国、瑞士、日本等国开展磁悬浮交通的试验研究工作及发展计划。     

From Exclusion to Inclusion? The Legal Treatment of 'Foreigners' in Contemporary Japan

This article provides a survey of postwar Japan's policy toward 'foreign' settlers, focusing on the case of 'zainichi Koreans'-Koreans who were taken forcefully, or migrated voluntarily, from Korea to Japan during the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910-45) and settled down in Japan after World War II, and their descendants residing in Japan. The article explores how the Japanese government and society have treated them since the end of World War II, thus showing that Japan's policy toward foreign settlers has been changing from one of 'exclusion' to one of 'inclusion,' though there still remain some institutional barriers.     

System Theory as Global Sociology-Japanese Ramifications of Parsonian and Luhmannian Thought

This article explores various engagements of system theory with Germany and Japan, looking in particular at the theories of Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann. Talcott Parsons based his sociological theory on the idea of a system of the values of a given society. Niklas Luhmann’s extended version was based on the idea of self-reproduction (or “autopoiesis”) of social systems within all modernized societies. Two studies have recently re-examined system theory on basis of its engagement with Japan: Günther Distelrath has subjected Parsonian theory on Japanese modernity to a structural revisioning in Die japanische Produktionsweise (1996); and Peter Fuchs has reconciled what he calls the “dividualism” of the Japanese psyche with the Luhmannian theory of functional differentiation in Kommunikation — Japanisch (1995). Distelrath critiques the Parsonian school of thought for giving Japan the status of a backward “follower” of the West. Fuchs, in contrast, endorses the universalist premise of Luhmann’s concept of society and makes Japanese “dividualism” the paradigm of effective modernization. Following on from Fuchs, I argue that system theory has the potential to overcome cultural limitations and become a global sociology. Its theoretical agenda in the twenty-first century includes the refinement of its concepts of the psychical system, the revision of its notion of the public and the mass media, as well as a systematic contribution to environmental protection and ecological communication in a functionally differentiated world society.     

Kompensation oder Konflikt?

Xenophobia is a central element of “modern right wing extremism”. Different approaches try to give reasons for this. In the perspective of an empirical theory comparison the explanatory impact of these different approaches is discussed. An important component of negative attitudes toward immigration are xenophobic motives. Two mechanisms are distinguished as basic processes for the mobilization of these xenophobic attitudes: conflict and compensation. Approaches that are concerned with the impact of competition for resources or status like deprivation or intergroup concepts stress the aspect of conflict. Other mechanisms are addressed by approaches that deal with aspects of anomia or authoritarism — they stress indirect processes and see xenophobia as a consequence of compensation processes. In this context individuals use rassist ideologies to compensate their own feelings of personal or social insecurity, disorientation and disintegration. The impact of both explanatory factors is examined on the basis of a representative population survey (ALLBUS) conducted in Germany in 1996.     

Attitudes toward Familial Obligation in the United States and in Japan*

With the global changes in industrial structure and demographic composition, families across the globe are facing increasing economic constraints reconciling their responsibility for the welfare of their children with the needs of older family members. Utilizing data from the Generations Survey, this article documents, and examines the sociodemographic determinants of and attitudes toward familial obligation in the United States and in Japan. The data show that Americans strongly believe in parental obligation for the provision of education for children. Although age differences in attitudes are more visible in Japan, the data from both countries indicate a strong familial cross‐generational obligation between the young and the old. However, in both the United States and Japan, the “middle generation” is less likely to express attitudes supporting intergenerational transfers of private property. Multivariate analysis reveals that demographic and socioeconomic attributes explain only part of the age differentials in attitudes. Furthermore, in both countries, the receipt of an inheritance and the expectation of receiving an inheritance in the future have positive effects on attitudes toward familial responsibility. The article concludes by discussing the implications of the findings for current and future patterns of family support systems and the transmission of economic advantage.     

From Exclusion to Inclusion? The Legal Treatment of ‘Foreigners’ in Contemporary Japan

This article provides a survey of postwar Japan's policy toward ‘foreign’ settlers, focusing on the case of ‘zainichi Koreans’–Koreans who were taken forcefully, or migrated voluntarily, from Korea to Japan during the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–45) and settled down in Japan after World War II, and their descendants residing in Japan. The article explores how the Japanese government and society have treated them since the end of World War II, thus showing that Japan's policy toward foreign settlers has been changing from one of ‘exclusion’ to one of ‘inclusion,’ though there still remain some institutional barriers.     

Possibilities and limitations of "lesbian continuum": the case of a protestant church in Japan

"Lesbian existence" is still invisible in Japanese society, although Japan is portrayed as being "tolerant" toward homosexuality. However, there is strong activism that tries to make lesbians visible. An example is Christian women's activism against homophobic discourses in the United Church of Christ in Japan (UCCJ/Kyodan) which is a denomination of Protestant Churches in Japan. This case helps us analyse the positionality of lesbians in the discourses of Christianity in a non-Christian society, Japan. Introduced to English-speaking audiences for the first time, this case shows clearly that the forces which produce the exclusion of lesbians and gays do not only have a religious origin but also a social background. This particular religious-social context sets the gay men as the object of discrimination but brings forth resistance activism by women-lesbians, bisexuals, and heterosexuals. Such women's activism against homophobia is analyzed as an example of the "lesbian continuum" (Adrienne Rich) and the possibilities and limitations of the continuum are explored. doi:10.1300/J155v10n03_10.     

The Mental Health Status of Indonesian Candidates Leaving for Japan under the Japan–Indonesia Economic Partnership Agreement: After the Great East Japan Earthquake

The goal of this study was to find predictors of the mental health status of the fourth batch of Indonesian candidates coming to Japan under the Japan–Indonesia Economic Partnership Agreement, 4 months after the Great East Japan Earthquake. A four‐page‐long questionnaire was developed and distributed to the fourth batch of Indonesian candidates, who wished to go to Japan under the above agreement, at the venue of an intensive Japanese language course held in Depok, West Java, Indonesia, in July 2011. Seventy‐six percent of the respondents were female. The average age was 24.7 (standard deviation [SD] 2.8) years old. Forty‐nine percent of the respondents answered that they were very worried or somewhat worried about the aftermath of the Great East Japan Earthquake. The mean Score of Knowledge about Japan, including knowledge about the working and living environments in Japan, was 53.3 and ranged from 20 to 80 (SD 7.3) points. The average score of the General Health Questionnaire, which was used as a marker of the mental health status in this study, was 36.1 (SD 4.2) points. The result of a multivariate analysis showed that the Score of Knowledge about Japan was significantly correlated to the General Health Questionnaire score (β=?.234, P < 0.05), but the degree of worry about the earthquake was not. The result indicated that knowledge about the actual living and working conditions in Japan is a major indicator of the mental health of the candidates, but not their worry concerning the earthquake.     

Soziale Schicht und Körpergrösse in Ost- und Westdeutschland

The average height of a population can be used as a measure for its health or for its “biological wellbeing”. If during their period of growth people regularly receive enough healthy and high-calorie food and are given medical treatment, their body height will profit from that. The development of body heights in Germany is surveyed by the Federal-Health-Survey 1998. According to our results men and women from Western Germany are taller than men and women from Eastern Germany. Since the German unification men from Eastern Germany seem to be catching up with their western counterparts; but women from Eastern Germany do not gain a push in growth. Effects of the degree of urbanization and of the social status are discussed in addition.     

"Foreign brides" meet ethnic politics in Taiwan

A great number of women from China, Vietnam, and Indonesia recently arrived in Taiwan to marry men of lower social strata. Such an unusual pattern of migration has stimulated debates about the status and the citizenship of the new arrivals. This study analyzes Taiwanese responses toward these marriage migrants by using a national survey conducted in 2004. Three aspects of restrictive attitudes were tapped concerning these newcomers: (1) rights to work; (2) access to public health insurance; and (3) full citizenship. Immigrants from China were most opposed, compared to women with other origins (Southeast Asia, Japan, Europe, and the US). The seemingly unrelated regression estimation regression results do not support the split labor market hypotheses, as marriage migrants do not appear to be economic threats toward members of the lower classes. In contrast, ethnic nationalism plays a key role in determining the natives’ restrictive attitudes. The case of Taiwan represents a special genre, where ethnic politics selectively arouses the social rejection of women immigrants of certain origins.     

Japan and international migration: situation and issues

The author discusses issues concerning labor migraton to Japan. Topics covered include the current debate in Japan over the role of labor migrants in supporting a population undergoing demographic aging, attitudes toward foreigners in Japan, and the economic benefits and costs of training migrants.