Why do some women participate in the labor force while others stay at home?

This study analyzed data from the 1970 Korean Census to uncover the determinants of women's labor force participation (LFP) in Korea, in 1970, when industrialization was beginning and the traditional sex-roles of Confucianism prevailed. The population surveyed included urban women aged 14-65 (19,277 married, 4373 single and living with parents, and 3222 single living independently). The study began by reviewing supply side explanations for LFP by women that predict women with high earning potential are likely to participate in the labor force, and noting that this economic explanation fails to consider the effects of cultural mechanisms that emphasize female domesticity. The study then comments on the labor market structure in Korea, in 1970, that led to limited employment opportunities for women, the domestic ideology that was prevalent during the early industrial stage, and the impact of this domestic ideology on Korean women. The logistic regressions used in the analytical methodology are then described, and it is hypothesized that women will be less likely to seek employment if they have adequate family resources, they are married and have children, and they are part of an extended family. It is further hypothesized that women's education will have no significant impact on employment and that university education is important as a marriage asset. The study results support this hypothesis in regard to single women living with parents, but reveal a slight effect of education on LFP among married women.     

The metaphorical constraints to pay equity: Why so many economists are outraged by comparable worth

The doctrine of comparable worth is frequently denounced by economists as inefficient, unnecessary, unworkable, incredibly costly, and replete with unfortunate consequences for the same low-wage workers it alleges to be helping. This paper attempts to identify an explanation for both the vigor and content of economists' common antipathy toward comparable worth. The methodology of the paper is taken from Donald McCloskey's recent The Rhetoric of Economics and Feyerabend's epistemology of conversation.A content analysis of economists' criticisms of comparable worth reveals a much different methodology from that deified in the beginning chapters of Principles of Economics texts. Facts and empirical validation are not the primary bases responsible for their conclusions. The theoretical and empirical support for current relative wages is not solid enough to explain either the near-unanimity of economists' arguments or their vitriolic tone.This paper analyzes the fundamental role played by metaphor in guiding economists' analysis of comparable worth. Metaphor is treated in this paper as a pre-rational image that, much like Kuhn's paradigms, provides insight and establishes blind spots.     

Modeling Causality Between Financial Deepening and Poverty Reduction in Egypt

This paper explores the determinants of immigration to Portugal. It is the first study to empirically evaluate an extended set of determinants to explain this new phenomenon in Portugal, a highly globalized economy and a 40-year-old democracy. This study finds evidence that the use of Portuguese as the mother tongue and prior Portuguese immigration are the main determinants of current immigration to Portugal from a given country. Depending on which subgroup is considered (refugees, students, or workers), more specific findings also arise. For refugees and foreign workers, human rights violations help explain increased immigration; for foreign students, low per capita income (in the home country) is a significant factor. Dividing the sample into Portuguese speakers and non-Portuguese speakers, we also identified the level of economic development as an important determinant for immigrants from non-lusophone countries. The military situations of the home countries were also important determinants for lusophone immigrants.     

The non-comparability of the “comparable worth” doctrine: An inappropriate standard for determining sex discrimination in pay

This article critically evaluates the legal doctrine of comparable worth, including recent federal court decisions related to it. The doctrine mandates equal pay for jobs requiring comparable—but not equal—skill, effort and responsibility. As a standard for determining whether sex discrimination in pay has occurred, comparable worth is an economically defective concept and inappropriate to the task.The comparable worth standard is based solely on job content, measured in terms of the internal characteristics of the work performed and conditions of work. This standard completely ignores external market forces which affect the supply of labor and the pay that employers must offer to attract and retain their workers. For example, although female workers receive only about 60 percent of the pay earned by their male counterparts, between two-thirds and three-quarters of this male-female differential in pay is associated with gender differences in the nature and availability of labor.The importance of external market forces in establishing the value of jobs is best demonstrated in higher education by comparing the labor markets for and salaries of various academic disciplines. The observed differences in academic salaries by discipline are not the result of job discrimination but, rather, reflect differences in the opportunity costs facing faculty in terms of the employment alternatives outside of higher education. Even though significant differences in salary levels exist between disciplines, higher education is still plagued by chronic and substantial labor market imbalances. These imbalances are an indication that salary levels have not varied sufficiently to fully reflect external market forces.This article is a revision of the President's Lecture presented by the author at Widener University on November 29, 1983.     

The effects of status on women’s autonomy in Bolivia,Peru,and Nicaragua

A recent ideological revolution promoting women’s status has raised questions concerning determinants of autonomy and their implications for policy formation. This study seeks to identify objective indicators determinant of autonomy, and then examine their relationship in light of women’s subjective experiences of autonomy. Potential determinants include education, literacy, household size, age at marriage, employment, and socioeconomic status. Analyses are based on these data sets: the 2000 Bolivia Family Interaction and Children’s Well-Being (FICW) Survey, the 2000 Peru Demographic Health Survey and the 1997/1998 Nicaraguan Demographic and Health Survey. Our findings indicate that autonomy is multidimensional. Utilizing Structural equation modeling, we identify two major domains autonomy: decision-making autonomy and personal autonomy in Bolivia, and family autonomy and public autonomy in Nicaragua and Peru. This study shows that each of our specified determinants has some influence on autonomy, with education and socioeconomic status being the most important. We conclude that policies designed to change educational, economic, and familial characteristics of women will only have a modest impact on women’s overall sense of autonomy.     

The determinants of a mother's choice of family structure

This study attempts to clarify the effect of welfare generosity on family structure while controlling for community mores, local labor market conditions, and other sociodemographic characteristics. In the existing AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) literature, these latter factors have been largely ignored. The empirical analysis is conducted by linking individual-level data from the 1987 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) with information on county-level unemployment rates, state AFDC benefits, and proxies of community mores. In particular, the detailed nature of the NSFH data set provides a unique opportunity to investigate the social and economic determinants of cohabitation, among other family structures. Local labor market conditions are found to significantly affect marriage and single-motherhood, while community conservatism is found to discourage the least conventional family structure — cohabitation. Finally, this study raises some question about the effect of AFDC policy on marriage and related events. Specifically, AFDC's statistical impact is found to be sensitive to the inclusion of an explicit measure of community conservatism in the empirical model specification.     

Toward a general theory of fertility: A causal modeling approach

A general theory of fertility is derived hypothesizing that the demand for children is primarily an outcome of social psychological processes within the family, subject to certain socioeconomic constraints. Two broad social psychological processes are posited as determinants of fertility. The first suggests that the attitudes or tastes of family members influence the demand for children. The second maintains that the nature of the husband-wife interaction (in terms of power, conflict, decision making, and marital satisfaction) determines family size. Socioeconomic variables, in the form of the normative social structure and social stratification, and economic constraints, such as income and price, are hypothesized to influence fertility through their impact on social psychological processes within the family. The overall theory is tested on two independent samples—one in Ankara, Turkey, the second in Mexico City, Mexico—using a structural equation methodology.     

Income per Natural: Measuring Development for People Rather Than Places

It is easy to learn the average income of a resident of El Salvador or Albania. But there is no systematic source of information on the average income of a Salvadoran or Albanian. We estimate a new statistic: income per natural—the mean annual income of all people born in a given country, regardless of where those people now reside. Income per natural often differs substantially from income per resident, both in its mean and in its distribution. A large part of this difference is caused by movement across borders. Indeed, for people from a number of developing countries, departing their country of birth is one of the most important sources of poverty reduction and material advancement. If economic development is that which raises human well‐being, then crossing international borders is not an alternative to economic development; it is a form of economic development.     

The social assimilation of immigrants

Although there is some considerable empirical research on the economic assimilation of migrants to the labor markets of the host countries, little or no analysis exists on the social assimilation and integration of migrant workers. This is surprising since the integration of migrants is not only of political importance, but it should strongly interact with their economic behavior. This paper provides an empirical analysis of the determinants of migrants‘ integration, using data for Germany. Ordered probit models are estimated, where the dependent variable is an ordered response on the feeling of national identity. The results show that personal characteristics, the nationality and the family context affect the migrant‘s integration, while labor market variables appear to be quite unimportant. Received December 9, 1994 / Accepted July 14, 1995     

Enforcing divorce settlements: Evidence from child support compliance and award modifications

This paper uses an implicit contracting framework to understand the dynamic nature of divorce settlements and to analyze the determinants of noncompliance with child support awards. In addition to the standard economic variables that affect the noncustodial parent’s (NCP’s) ability to pay child support, our approach focuses on factors that may affect the NCP’s desire to pay, such as the ongoing relationship between the two parents and between the NCP and the children. We also examine the “state-contingent” nature of child support payments and explore the factors that lead to modifications in child support agreements. Using a longitudinal data set collected by the Stanford Child Custody Project, the empirical analysis provides documentation that compliance by noncustodial fathers can vary substantially from month to month. In addition, we find that even within a short period after divorce, a substantial minority of parents agree to make informal modifications to their divorce settlement in response to changes in economic circumstances and in custodial arrangements     

Measuring Financial Capability and its Determinants Using Survey Data

Financial capability, or people’s ability to manage and take control of their finances, is receiving increasing interest among policy makers as more people find themselves in difficult financial situations during the current economic downturn. We tackle the problem of how to measure financial capability—with a specific focus on making ends meet and money management—using data from a general household survey (the British Household Panel Survey), and then identify its key determinants using panel data models. This is important if appropriate policies and programmes are to be targeted at those most in need. We find the lowest financial capability among young unemployed single adults living in households with other unrelated non-working adults. In contrast, older men and women in full-time work with an employed spouse have the most financial capability.     

An inquiry into the formula of calculation of the planned total population]

Population planning is considered to national economic planning. In order to plan population properly, there must be a correct method of calculation. If the method is not scientific, then the results are difficult to verify; if it is not perfect, then the results will be imprecise. If inaccurate results are used as the basis for economic activities, then there will be adverse effects on a country's economic development. Mathematical calculations must be scientific, i.e., the contents being calculated and the results must all be logical. Currently the most commonly used calculations cannot be called scientific and logical. A mathematical formula is developed which fulfills 3 necessary criteria: 1) it is seientific, i.e., the indicators and the formula conform to the needs of statistical work, the implied meaning is valid, and the results conform to objective needs and the goals of the calculation; 2) it is simple, i.e., it does not involve complex mathematical operations and it gets answers relatively quickly without the use of a calculator; further, it can predict population totals for relatively long periods of time; and 3) it is applicable to calculating any population total of a future period and can be used on a national or local level.     

Financial Sector Development Indicators and Economic Growth in Cameroon and South Africa

This study seeks to identify, compare and appreciate salient differences in the financial sector development and economic growth experiences of Cameroon and South Africa. A comparative study is often conducted in the early stages of development of a branch of science in order to help research to progress from the initial level of exploratory case studies to a more advanced level of general model invariance, such as causality. Furthermore, a comparative study can also help in understanding the root cause of the development and/or weakness of one system (economy). A comparison between the financial sectors of Cameroon and South Africa will help to identify whether or not the level and structure of a financial sector can explain differences in terms of the effects of the latter on economic growth. The paper first compares the economic growth experiences of Cameroon and South Africa and examines the development of their financial sector. This is to assist in understanding their economic situations, in order to acknowledge the experiences of the two countries, which may explain the nature of the development of their financial sectors. The paper then analyzes the further development of their financial sectors using various indicators of financial deepening. This is to evaluate how all the policies implemented in order to restore the economic situation in these countries have impacted on their financial sector, either in terms of the number of players (financial widening), or in terms of their efficiency (financial deepening). Implications and conclusion are then included. It has been suggested that in Cameroon, during the pre-reform period, the country as well as the financial sector, excelled the most, partly due to the discovery of oil in 1978. However, the mid 1980s economic shock experiences of Cameroon significantly affected the financial sector. Subsequent financial sector development policies of Cameroon have failed to improve the economic situation. In the post-reform period, the banking sector was unable to efficiently collect savings and allocate these to the economy, possibly because of the loss of confidence in the banking sector although few efforts were made to attract savings from the economy. Furthermore, real interest rate, which reflects the real cost of funds to the borrower and the real yield to the lender, was almost negative throughout the period under review, and did not attract savings, even when it was positive. For South Africa, throughout the period under review, there has been a trend of an increase in almost all the indicators of the financial sector development selected. Savings have been better mobilised and effectively allocated to the economy and the financial sector has done well since the liberalisation of the sector.     

Determinants of contraceptive switching behavior in rural Sri Lanka

This study examines the influence of a selected set of determinants of contraceptive method switching in rural Sri Lanka. Of interest is the question of how change in contraceptive practice at the individual level can account for patterns observed at the aggregate level. Based on calendar data on contraceptive use over a 3-year period, collected for more than 3,000 married women in a 1986 survey, the multivariate analysis shows that women who attain all or a significant proportion of their desired fertility tend to switch to more effective methods. Women who experience method failure tend to switch methods, usually to a type that is more effective. The woman's background determinants of age and education have small but significant effects on method switching, whereas the effect of household economic well-being is not significant. There is strong indication that rural couples are practicing contraception in a nonrandom fashion, switching methods in accordance with changes in their fertility motivations and contraceptive experience.     

Confidence to be given findings derived from fixed-period definitions of migration

Some of the errors in measurement of migration and its determinants that occur with the use of fixed-period data are identified. Consideration of this issue yields a typology of studies based on the nature of the determinants related to migration. Sources of distortion are numerated. The logical severity of each distortion is detailed. Use of the typology permits an appraisal of the potential confidence to be given to the validity of findings associated with classes of migration research which use fixed-period data. A test case is examined to illustrate the usefulness of the typology.This research was supported in part by the NSF Grant No. SOC76-81767, for the study, "A Test of Competing Explanations for Migration Differentials." Funds for computer time and technical assistance were also provided by the Department of Sociology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville.     

Income and inequality as determinants of mortality: An international cross-section analysis

This paper analyses the effects of income and income distribution on mortality. The likely relation between income and mortality for individuals is discussed, and implications for the determinants of mortality at the community level inferred. Measures of income inequality are likely to be related to mortality on aggregate data because of the non-linearity of income effects. An international cross-section analysis is then undertaken in which different measures of income and income distribution are investigated as determinants of mortality, with life expectancy at birth and age five, and infant mortality taken as measures of the dependent variable. It is found that income distribution is consistently and strongly related to mortality; in a relatively inegalitarian country life expectancy may be between five and ten years lower than in a more egalitarian country.     

Attitudes toward family size in some East European countries

Summary The paper is a review of published materials on attitudes toward family size derived from nationwide family planning studies conducted in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and the USSR around 1970. Priority is given to the findings on expected family size, though other attitudinal variables such as the ideal number of children and/or the number planned at marriage are also discussed. The paper shows that the majority of women in all the countries surveyed tend to have a limited number of children. Although the trend is especially striking among better-educated and gainfully employed women, it is also spreading fast, particularly among the younger generations, through the whole urban and rural population. The average expected family size is generally close to, and for a sizeable group of women below, replacement level. The trend toward a small family size is only partially a reflection of real desires. Various factors, most of them apparently of an economic nature, prompt many women to have fewer children than they would wish. If the average expected fertility were equal to that considered as ideal or to that planned at marriage there would be no danger that births would fall below replacement level. In contrast to the situation in the countries as a whole, women in the Asian Republics of the USSR not only expect but also tend to regard as ideal a family with larger numbers of children.     

The Determinants of Economic Growth Versus Genuine Progress in South Korea

This paper examines whether the drivers of economic growth are the same as those for genuine progress in the case of South Korea. Using data covering the period 1970–2005, the paper first constructs a Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI). An empirical model is then specified and estimated using growth in GDP per capita and growth in the GPI per capita as dependent variables. Results indicate that while physical capital, research and development, exports, and inflation are all important in determining growth in GDP per capita, only physical capital is a driver of genuine progress. These findings highlight the need for policymakers to identify and target other determinants of genuine progress to improve the well-being of South Koreans, rather than focus attention on traditional sources of economic growth.     

Impact of demographic variables on women’s economic empowerment: An ordered probit model

The present study aimed to empirically examine the demographic variables that determine women’s economic empowerment. A sample of 500 married women between 21 and 49 years old (M_age = 35.49, SD = 7.66) was conveniently selected from district Multan (Pakistan). Control over economic resources was used as a proxy for women’s economic empowerment. Ordered probit regression was run to assess the demographic determinants (i.e., age, education, paid job, income, and property) of economic empowerment of the least empowered, moderately empowered, and highly empowered women. Paid job, age, income, and property appeared as positive and significant predictors of women’s economic empowerment. Implications of the study were also discussed.     

广州市老年人的消费结构研究

本文依据广州市 140 0名城市老年人生活状况抽样调查资料 ,考察了老年人消费结构的总体特征 ,分析了影响老年人消费结构的若干经济因素和社会因素 ,探讨了用恩格尔系数判断老年人生活水平的适用性问题