Who “Fills in” for Siblings and How? A Multilevel Analysis of Personal Network Composition and Its Relationship to Sibling Size1

In the midst of widespread fertility decline, I examine the relationship between sibling number and support network composition using multilevel regression on data from 25 countries. A fundamental structural effect of having fewer siblings is that individuals have a smaller pool of available close‐kin alters with whom to construct support networks. Consequently, networks of people with fewer siblings should be composed of different sorts of relations. Results confirm that such compositional adjustment occurs in systematic ways. Compared to those with three or more siblings, adults with none to two siblings (as separate categories) are more likely to expect support from parents, extended kin, and close friends but not more likely to do so from spouses/partners and children. Single children are also more likely to include neighbors and have smaller‐sized and/or impersonal networks. These findings contradict the primacy of familial ties in social support networks. Moreover, adjustment of support networks towards nonsibling ties occurs in culturally expected ways. Those with fewer siblings are generally only more likely to turn to ties for the types of support typically associated with those relations—parents for instrumental and financial support and friends for emotional support. Single children, however, also violate institutionalized expectations of social support by turning to ties for a wider range of social support. The results suggest that continuing declines in fertility could bring about both reinforcement and rearticulation of the sociocultural framing of close personal relationships. Moreover, consistent with recent research, the results show that personal networks are influenced more by individual‐level than country‐level factors.     

Financial and emotional support in close personal ties among Central Asian migrant women in Russia

This study advances research on the role of personal networks as sources of financial and emotional support in immigrants’ close personal ties beyond the immediate family. Because resource scarcity experienced by members of immigrant communities is likely to disrupt normatively expected reciprocal support, we explored multi-level predictors of exchange processes with personal network members that involve (1) only receiving support, (2) only providing support, and (3) reciprocal support exchanges. We focus on an understudied case of Central Asian migrant women in the Russian Federation using a sample of 607 women from three ethnic groups—Kyrgyz, Tajik, Uzbek—who were surveyed in two large Russian cities-Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. The survey collected information on respondents’ demographic, socioeconomic, and migration-related characteristics, as well as characteristics of up to five individuals with whom they had a close relationship. Multi-level multinomial regression analyses were used to account for the nested nature of the data. Our results revealed that closer social relationships (siblings and friends) and greater levels of resources (income and regularized legal status) at both ego and alter levels were positively related to providing, receiving, and reciprocally exchanging financial and emotional support. Egos were more likely to provide financial assistance to transnational alters, whereas they were more likely to engage in mutual exchanges of emotional support with their network members from other countries. Personal network size and density showed no relationship with support exchanges. These findings provide a nuanced picture of close personal ties as conduits for financial and emotional support in migrant communities in a major, yet understudied, migrant-receiving context.     

Social structure and support networks in Beijing and Hong Kong

This study examines personal support networks in Beijing and Hong Kong, based on survey data collected in 2000. It was found that these two Chinese cities, which share a common Confucian cultural heritage, are similar in many aspects of social support. The supportive roles of spouse or partner are prominent and diffuse. Other close relatives are more involved in instrumental than emotional support. Non-kin primary ties specialize in emotional support. Neither extended kin support nor institutional support is significant. Nonetheless, the two cities differ in certain aspects of social support, reflecting their differences in such macro social-structural forces as economic modernization, urbanization and the social organization of work. Compared to the Hong Kong Chinese, the Beijing Chinese are more likely to seek support from close kin or coworkers, but less likely to rely on institutional help. Sources of support in both cities are also affected by the micro social-structural positions people occupy, particularly marital status and household income. It is noted that about 10% of the respondents in both cities reported “no one” to turn to for support. Among the various types of support, emotional comfort is the most difficult to find.     

Eliciting representative samples of personal networks

In this paper we introduce and evaluate a method for eliciting a representative sample of total personal networks. First names were used as a cue to elicit a sample of 14 alters from 712 respondents through a telephone interview. Network characteristics for each respondent were calculated as averages and proportions across the 14 alters. These were compared to other studies using more specialized network generators. Our method produced results which are logically consistent with those expected from a generator that elicits a sample from the total rather than a specialized subset of the total network. The proportions of kin relations, average tie strength and frequency of contacts are found to be lower than network generators designed to elicit networks of social support. Given our conclusion that the sample is representative of the total network, we examine the varying characteristics of respondents and their networks based on the domination of a particular relation type in their network. This analysis provides answers to such questions as ‘What characteristics of respondents account for the proportion of family relations in their network?‘ and ‘What are the similarities between respondents whose networks are made up of mostly work-related relations?’     

The association between social support networks and maternal employment: a comparison of western German,eastern German,and migrant mothers of preschool-aged children

A lack of adequate childcare can delay mothers’ return to the labor market after childbirth. This paper examines whether social support with childcare by kin and friends facilitates maternal employment in the first 72 months after childbirth. Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) 1993–2009, a comparison of natives (n?=?1409) and migrants (n?=?411) in corporative-conservative western Germany with mothers in former socialist eastern Germany (n?=?528) shows that kinship support is positively associated with maternal employment when public childcare is limited. Western German and migrant mothers return to work sooner if they are surrounded by kin. But kin do not provide support for maternal employment in eastern Germany, where public childcare is more easily accessible and continuous female employment is a prevalent social norm. Friendship networks, by contrast, are most valuable for maternal employment if they complement public childcare.     

The role of friends, in-laws, and other kin in father-perpetrated child physical abuse

Thirty-five physically abusive fathers were matched with a comparison sample to test multiple systemic explanations for child physical abuse, using an ecological perspective, and to show the relationship between the structure of social ties and the function of those ties. The physically abusive fathers were found to have received significantly fewer emotional and instrumental supports from their friends, in-laws, and other kin than the comparison fathers, and were only weakly linked to members of their social networks--members who might have discouraged the fathers' aggressive impulses or provided additional support to them and to their families.     

Dynamics of Social Support

Abstract

This study challenged the current conceptualization of social support as a static process and attempted to explore how the sources and types of social support unfolded over time during mainland Chinese immigrant women's first year of resettlement in Hong Kong. A longitudinal qualitative method was used and 15 immigrant women were recruited. In-depth interviews using a semi-structured interview guide were conducted at three-monthly intervals. Results supported our view on the “stages within stage” assumption of the resettlement period of the migration-integration process. In the first quarter of resettlement, immigrant women mobilized a great deal of instrumental and information support from family members and kin to resolve survival issues such as finances, housing and childcare. However, the demand for instrumental support declined over time, and the need for emotional support appeared to peak at the second stage of the resettlement period. Fellow immigrant women were found to be the most significant providers of information, emotional and social companionship support to immigrant women throughout the resettlement period while the supporting roles of husbands and kin diminished. Lastly, immigrant women were less inclined to seek help from formal networks and rarely sought support from neighbors and co-workers. Socio-economic and cultural reasons were used to explain these differential support patterns during immigrants' first year of resettlement in Hong Kong, and implications for social work practices were discussed.     

Doubled Homes — Doubled Social Ties? Children's Relationships in Post‐Divorce Shared Residence Arrangements

Although an increasing number of children live in shared residence arrangements after parental divorce, studies on their social relationships are rare. We address this research gap by relying on configurational approaches, social capital and social networks. Building on qualitative case studies (ego‐centred networks, interviews) with 14 children aged 10–14, results show that respondents constructed social ties based on two key categories: emotional closeness and constancy. Having two places of residence did not multiply close relations, and relations that entered the network after parental divorce (e.g. step kin) were particularly distant. Children's networks at both homes had limited interconnections.     

Social isolation from extended family members and friends among African Americans: Findings from a national survey

This study investigated the correlates of objective social isolation from extended family members and friends among a national sample of African Americans. The analysis is based upon the African American subsample (n = 3,570) of the National Survey of American Life. The dependent variable examines four categories of respondents: 1) socially isolated from both family and friends, 2) socially isolated from friends only, 3) socially isolated from family only, and 4) not socially isolated. Overall, 23% of respondents indicated some degree of objective social isolation from family, friends or both groups, while the complementary 77% of the sample were not isolated from family or friends. Only 4% of respondents indicated being isolated from both family and friends. Multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed several gender, education, marital status and region differences. In particular, African American women were less likely to be socially isolated from family members than African American men. This finding was sustained even when controlling for differences in subjective isolation from family members, underscoring the protective effect of female gender. Study findings are discussed in relation to previous research on social isolation, as well as prior research on African American social support networks.     

Identity,Peer Relationships,and Adolescent Girls' Sexual Behavior: An Exploration of the Contemporary Double Standard

The idea of a sexual double standard emphasizes that men have more sexual freedom, whereas women are subject to social sanctions for the same behaviors. This research uses a sample of adolescent women to examine the social consequences of reporting a greater number of sex partners. The research explores whether there are broader social costs and feelings of low self-worth associated with a high number of sex partners, and also focuses on characteristics of the adolescents' close friends. The analyses of quantitative data (n = 600) provide support for the emphasis on the adolescents' immediate network of friends: Friends' attitudes and behaviors were significant predictors of respondents' own sexual experiences, while those reporting a higher number of sex partners did not report a lack of popularity, desire for more friends, or lower self-esteem. In-depth relationship history narratives collected from a subset of respondents (n = 46) provide additional context. Women often recognized the existence of a double standard on a societal or school level, but support or acceptance provided by the more immediate network of similarly situated friends serves as a buffer against such negative attributions. The findings suggest that programs targeting sexual behaviors should focus on how peer norms influence girls' sexual choices.     

Egocentric contact networks in comparison: Taiwan and Hungary

This study compares the size and structure of egocentric networks in Taiwan and Hungary using a diary approach. Both countries have transformed from authoritarian regimes to democratic states, yet they differ in social, economic, and cultural institutions that may be common to the respective larger region where each is located. To sample the structure of each egocentric network, we extracted information from largely identical contact diaries collected in both countries, 51 from Taiwan and 138 from Hungary. After comparing sample characteristics, network size, and composition, we construct a Strength of Ties (SoT) index based on two objective and two subjective measures of ego-alter ties. We then use this index to analyze tie strength by the types of relationships. On average, the number of alters contacted in one week is much larger in Taiwan than in Hungary, and the gap remains unchanged after controlling for key socio-demographic background factors. Even though the four indicators that we use to construct the SoT index are distributed similarly among the respondents in both Taiwan and Hungary, the composite index pinpoints how the types of relationships play somewhat different roles across the nations. The findings imply that the tendency to maintain only the closest ties with kin and other close friends is linked to distrust in others, a possible ill effect lingering from the authoritarian past. The implication is partially supported by further analyses using the ISSP 2006 survey data. We address how our findings may contribute to the existing literature on the linkage between societal characteristics and interpersonal ties.     

Exploring the Family Album: Social Class Differences in Images of Family Life*

Based on an analysis of twenty family albums, this study investigates how social class affects the family's portrayal of kin and friendship networks as well as its geographical boundaries. The results suggest the visual collections of middle-class families are more likely to present a kin oriented image of family life, include friends, and portray the family as a system with broad geographical boundaries than those of the working-class. Theoretical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed.     

Social support networks in urban Shanghai

The present paper examines the composition of social support network in urban Shanghai. Spouse/partner and parent/parent-in-law are found to provide diffuse support, serving both instrumental and emotional functions. Compared to kin ties, support from coworkers are likely to be more specialized and secondary. These findings are inconsistent with earlier data collected by Ruan and her associates in Tianjin. They observe that work-related ties are more prevalent than kin ties in the Chinese support networks and are more likely to be preferred helpers for a variety of problems. Moreover, the roles of family ties (parent, child, and sibling) tend to be peripheral and highly specialized, mainly, in money issues. Differences in findings from the two cities are attributed partly to the different measures of social support and partly to the different social structures related to marketization.     

Abuse, support, and depression among homeless and runaway adolescents

This study examines the effectiveness of social support networks on psychological well-being among 602 homeless and runaway adolescents. The respondents were interviewed in shelters, drop-in centers, and on the streets in cities of four Midwestern states (Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas). The path model was used to test the direct effect of family abuse and precocious independence on adolescent depressive symptoms and indirect effects through social support networks. Results indicate that although abusive family origins contribute directly to depressive symptoms there are indirect effects of family abuse and early independence through social support networks. Family abuse and early independence drive homeless adolescents to rely on peers for social support. While support from friends on the street reduces depression, association with deviant peers increases depression.     

Effects on reliability and validity of egocentered network measurements

This paper examines the reliability and validity of egocentered networks. Reliability and validity are estimated by the multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) approach. A split ballot MTMM design [Saris, W.E., 1999. Forced choice or agree/disagree questions? An evaluation by the split ballot MTMM experiment. In: Proceeding of the Meeting of the IRMCS, pp. 122–146; Kogovšek, T., Ferligoj, A., Coenders, G. Saris, W. E., 2002. Estimating the reliability and validity of personal support measures: full information ml estimation with planned incomplete data. Social Networks 24, 1–20] is used, in which separate groups of respondents received different combinations of two methods. The effect of factors such as the methods used and the personal characteristics of respondents that can affect the quality of data was estimated by a meta analysis.Measurement method, type of question, network size, age, gender, extraversion and emotional stability all had statistically significant effects on the validity of measurement. After the list of alters is obtained with name generators, name interpreter questions can be asked in two ways. One way (“by alters”) is to take each alter individually and to ask all the questions about him/her, going alter by alter until the end of the list of alters. The other way (“by questions”) is to take the question and ask this question for all alters on the list, going question by question until the end of the list of name interpreter questions. Telephone interviewing (both by alters and by questions) gave more valid measurements than face-to-face interviews.Behavioral questions were more valid than questions with emotional content. The characteristics of ties were more validly measured in smaller networks. With reference to respondents’ personal characteristics younger respondents, men, extraverted and emotionally stable respondents all had more valid measurements. Reliability was significantly affected by the measurement method, the type of question and age. The telephone/by alters method was the most reliable measurement method. Behavioral questions were more reliable than questions with emotional content. Measurements among younger respondents were also more reliable.     

Family comes first: Men's and women's personal networks in Tehran

This paper examines the characteristics of middle class Tehranis’ networks, based upon a survey of 318 individuals from the 159 households. The results show that women and men have similar-size networks. However, their networks differ substantially in gender composition, with each having almost two-thirds of network members of their own gender. Men's and women's networks contain a large proportion of kin overall. Most ties tend to be with immediate kin: children, parents and siblings. An immediate kin is usually the socially closest member of a network. Apart from voluntary factors, the importance of kinship ties in men's and women's networks may be the result of the macro-structural conditions under which patterns of social relationships take place.     

Understanding communities of neglectful parents: child caregiving networks and child neglect

This article focuses on family social networks and the community of caregivers of neglected children. If neglect is part of family functioning, who watches over the children? Using a case study approach, this study researched 12 children and their parents. Several concepts, such as multiple caregiving and kin keepers, revealed that study children were cared for by many people. Social network mapping used in this study indicated that families were not isolated from the larger community, had various forms of negative and positive social support, were low income, and were involved in substance abuse and domestic violence. Understanding the patterns that emerge from the complex web of family, friends, social service agencies, and the larger social community in which neglected children live can result in better community building.     

Kinship Support,Family Relations,and Psychological Adjustment Among Low‐Income African American Mothers and Adolescents

The association of kin social support with mothers' adjustment and family relations was assessed among 204 African American mothers and adolescents who were on average 14.45 years of age. Also examined was the association of mothers' adjustment with family relations and adolescents' adjustment. Findings revealed that kin social and emotional support was positively associated with mothers' optimism. Poor relations with kin were positively associated with mothers' depression. Kin advice and counseling and kin social and emotional support were positively linked to family routine. Poor relations with kin were positively associated with parent/adolescent communication problems. Mothers' optimism was positively associated with family routine and mediated the association of kin social and emotional support with family routine. Parent/adolescent communication problems were positively associated with adolescents' depression. The findings were discussed in light of their support for theoretical and empirical work on family processes among poor African American families.