美国文官"政治中立"问题的历史考察

本文运用历史学与政治学相结合的研究方法,讨论与研究美国文官"政治中立"的问题。通过对这一问题的讨论与研究,不仅有助于从政治学的角度来认识政府的政治与行政功能及它们的相互联系与区别,而且有助于从历史学的角度来梳理这一问题的历史线索及其未来走势,进而对我国的政府体制建设提供理论借鉴。     

罗斯福执政前期在文官任用方面实行的"政治庇护制"

罗斯福就任总统之前,美国文官"功绩制"的范围越来越大,与此同时,文官制度本身也通过国会立法,处于初步的改善之中,美国文官制度的发展开始步入规范化的轨道。但是罗斯福在任职前期推行的"政治庇护制"却打断了文官制度自身发展的进程,使美国文官制度的发展一度偏离了原来的方向。罗斯福实行的"政治庇护制"是指不通过"功绩制"的文官分类办法,直接用政治手段来任命文官的原则。它的特点是思想意识和知识能力的庇护,罗斯福使用"政治庇护制"的目的是用行政领域的改革来保证"新政"措施得到高效率地贯彻和执行。从行政效率的角度看,"政治庇护制"是有效的,罗斯福在运用"政治庇护制"过程中促进了美国行政体制和官制向现代制转变。     

明治初中期政局与日本文官官僚制度的确立

本文以太政官时期的官僚的任用、《文官试验试补及见习规则》以及《文官任用令》为线索,探讨和研究了近代日本文官制度的确立与明治初中期政局中藩阀、政党以及日本内阁建立的内在联系,并提出了近代日本文官集团,从一开始就与日本的政局-藩阀政治、政党制度以及议会和内阁制度有着密切的联系的观点;近代日本文官不仅仅包含有经过文官考试而成为职业文官的集团,也包括着随政局变动而更迭的文官官僚。     

构建公务员管理中的竞争机制－对功能、有效空间、方式及相关因素等问题的分析

本文旨在研究与社会主义市场机制相适应的政府职位市场化问题。文章从竞争行为产生的缘由入手 ,通过对西方文官制度和中国古代科举制度中竞争机制的比较和总结 ,结合对竞争机制功能、有效适用范围、重要因素等若干层面的分析 ,围绕社会主义市场经济条件下 ,政府职位竞争的特殊性、矛盾性进行了阐述 ,提出了在社会转型期 ,构建适应社会主义市场经济的政府职位竞争机制的设想和使其日臻完善的相关对策。     

公共职位数量规模扩张的化解对策

公共职位数量规模的增长是世界范围内的大趋势,在中国这一趋势表现得尤为明显.随着公务员队伍的不断扩大,行政经费的日益攀升,特别是社会择业意识的公职化趋向和公务员报考热的不断升温,公共职位数量规模问题日益成为社会关注的热点.在一定程度上,能否有效地破解公共职位数量规模的扩张趋势,成为直接影响政府效度与信度的关键环节.     

变通政治:东北地区行政机构近代化轨迹

清政府为维持满洲贵族的政治、经济利益,从康熙朝起,在东北地区长期实施封禁政策和旗民双重行政管理体制,设置了军府制度,以盛京将军、吉林将军、黑龙江将军镇守东北.光绪二十六年(1900年),清政府下诏“变通政治”,从1906年开始的清末东北新政,涉及政治、经济、文化教育等方面.此后,东北地区设立行省,广设州县等地方行政机构,标志着东北八旗军府制度的终结和道、府、厅、州、县民治体制的确立,促进了东北地区行政机构的近代化.东北地区的新政作为清末新政的一个组成部分,具有鲜明的地域特性,实现了边疆内地行政机构的一体化,对于巩固边防、有效地抵制列强对东北地区的侵略有重要的意义.     

清季保举、学堂奖励实官纠葛与铨选变迁

清季科举停废尤其是官制改革之后,面对朝野上下对学堂奖励实官的质疑,文官考试、任用制度提上议程,清朝有意取消学堂奖励实官。在此过程中,旧的保举途径与新的学堂奖励实官关系纠葛,学部与其他各部、各省之间权力关系错综复杂。保举、学堂奖励实官的新旧仕途关系变动的实质,是清朝从新旧杂糅、多途并进、取士与选官混同,转化为建立以学堂与文官考试衔接、培才与选官分离的新的铨选制度的过程。由于保举问题始终悬而未决,取消学堂奖励实官过程一波三折,并直接制约清季铨选转型的进程,体现了清季新旧铨选制度转型的曲折性。     

战前日本政治结构变迁中的文官官僚

本文通过对战前日本各种政治势力结构的变迁为线索,试图探讨战前日本文官制度下,日本官僚在政府决策、法律制定中的地位变化,进而揭示战前日本文官在战前日本政治体制下的政治决策中所起的作用。     

“冷内战”与美国政治文化转型加速态势分析

进入21世纪以来,美国政治文化转型态势日益明显,其基本路径是从“共识政治”向“对抗政治”的转变。特朗普就任美国总统,推动了这一转型进程的加速发展;根本原因在于,他与所有其他美国总统不同,从未放弃总统竞选期间的分裂性逻辑,使既已存在的“冷内战”全面升温。自特朗普当选美国总统以来,美国政治文化转型的加速态势主要体现为三个方面：以政党极化甚至相互仇视为特征的政党对立,以少数族裔总体支持民主党、白人总体支持共和党为特征的族裔对立,和以城市支持民主党、乡村支持共和党为特征的城乡对立。拜登当选并执政某种程度上降低了“冷内战”的温度,并可能使“共识政治”得以复苏;但迄今为止美国仍未找到摆脱政党对立、族裔对立和城乡对立等“冷内战”的有效途径。美国政治文化的当代转型仍是个长期和缓慢的过程,且充满高度不确定性。     

科举制:英国文官制度的起源

在中国历史上,科举制既是一种极富创意的官员选拔制度,又是一种颇具特色的社会整合机制。隋唐科举制的创立,具有历史的合理性和进步性,它打破了魏晋以来世族、大族垄断官场的社会现实。科举制的公开性和广泛性为普通民众凭借学识进入仕途,提供了前所未有的机遇,它不仅扩大了封建统治的基础,起到了稳定封建统治的作用,而且逐渐影响到欧美等国。从18世纪中晚期科举制传至英国,到19世纪中晚期英国文官制度的确立,英国的文官考试制度无不受到科举制的影响。中国古代的科举制成为英国文官制度的渊源。     

Duty and discretion in a wayward agency: The U.S. environmental protection agency implementation of the hazardous waste laws

In the early 1980s the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Anne (Gorsuch) Burford became a battleground between President Reagan's appointees and the career civil servants. The new administration wanted to ease the regulatory burden, cooperate with industry, and reduce inflationary costs. The civil servants wanted to continue the existing policies of the Carter administration, or as they saw it, to implement the laws. The hazardous waste program, headed by Rita Lavelle, serves as a case study of the tension between the agency's duty (to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act) and the administrative discretion to carry out President Reagan's policy.     

提升公务员道德修养的途径探索——国家公务员考试增设《道德修养》科目的必要性和现实性

公务员道德是公务员素质之魂,国家公务员道德修养的高低对社会风尚的形成和政府工作的成败产生着直接的根本的影响,因此,在公开选拔公务员中注重道德修养就显得尤为重要。然而目前设置的公务员公共考试科目却只重视了公务员能力的测试,忽略了道德修养的测试。本文从历史和现实的角度分析、阐述了加试"公务员道德修养"的必要性和迫切性,并对考试的方法提出了自己的见解。     

Job satisfaction in Cascadia: A comparison of British Columbia,Oregon, and Washington civil servants

Canada and the USA share a common cultural source in the British Empire, yet within shared democratic traditions, very different political structures, policy processes, and values have been identified. Canada is seen as having a more deferential culture more supportive of government while Americans have been argued to be more individualistic and cynical about the role of government in society. Using a political culture framework, this study examines the degree to which Canadian and U.S. civil servants perceive societal respect for their public sector jobs, and the impact of those perceptions on individual job satisfaction. It is argued that if civil servants feel more valued by society, they are more likely to have higher levels of public service motivation, which then contributes to higher levels of individual job satisfaction. This study employs surveys of Oregon, Washington and British Columbian civil servants conducted in 2011 and 2012 to investigate this relationship. Findings suggest that British Columbian civil servants feel more valued by society when compared to Oregon and Washington civil servants, and these perceptions of positive societal support are associated with higher levels of individual job satisfaction.     

Quacks and Clerks: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on the Structure and Function of the British Medical Civil Service

The British government's requirement for expert medical advice from the 1850s led to the development of a medical civil service, which reached its peak in size and authority in the 1970s. By this time the Chief Medical Officer (CMO) had direct management of a staff of over 170 medically qualified civil servants, who provided expertise on the development and implementation of new medical treatments as well as on broader health protection and promotion issues. The successive Whitehall efficiency reviews from 1979 onwards culminated in 1994 in the merger of the parallel medical and civil service reporting hierarchies in the Department of Health, effectively reducing the CMO's ability to call upon the support of medical civil servants, at a time of increasing new health threats such as AIDS and MRSA. This article uses government reports to chart the rise and fall of the British medical civil service. It discusses how, in the last ten years, the British government has become more imaginative in its use of temporary specialist medical advisers (tsars) brought in from the NHS, in relaxing the formal civil service hierarchies, and quietly abandoning the statutory Standing Medical Advisory Committee (SMAC). This article suggests that when the government has failed to give adequate support to its CMOs, the medical civil service has suffered from poor morale, experienced recruitment difficulties, and the ability to respond to health crises has been compromised. It highlights the chronic lack of historical awareness in the development of health policy in Britain.     

Democracy Out of Anarchy: The Prospects for Post‐Civil‐War Democracy*

Objective. This study explores the effects of civil war outcome on post‐civil‐war democratization. We employ an expected utility model to argue that the attributes of the civil war that lead to balanced power relations between the warring parties lead to higher levels of postconflict democracy. Methods. We estimate a series of OLS regression models with change in the level of democracy (from the prewar level to five and ten years after the conflict ended) as the dependent variable. Results. Civil wars that end in negotiated settlements are more likely to experience higher levels of democratization than civil wars that end in military victory by either side. Identity‐based conflicts lead to lower levels of democratization while previous democratic experience seems to decrease post‐civil‐war democratization. We find no support for the argument that high war costs and U.N. peace‐keeping forces produce higher levels of democracy. Conclusions. Civil war may lead to more inclusive polities if it serves to even the balance of power between contending groups in the nation. Power balance is more likely to bring about more democratic polities, especially where power sharing is formalized in a negotiated settlement.     

干部教育培训的全面质量管理——以北京市干部教育培训工作为例

干部教育培训的实质是专业化服务。在干部教育培训工作日益科学化、制度化、规范化的背景下,培训的专业机构也面临着前所未有的机遇和挑战。本文借鉴了专业化服务领域实施全面质量管理实践和反思的成果,提出了在干部教育培训专业机构实施混合模式的全面质量管理的设想,以实现培训质量的持续改进和干部教育培训机构的可持续发展。     

Towards "the Field of Corrections": Modernizing the Probation Service in the Late 1990s

The Probation Service in England and Wales has been caught up in the New Labour government's broader programme of "modernization". In a document more radical than anything produced under the previous Conservative government, New Labour has proposed that the Service be brought under centralized control, that its name be changed to reflect its new primary purpose of public protection, and that it be brought into closer structural alignment with the Prison Service. This paper discerns in the case made for centralization and the need for closer ties with prisons an authoritarian impulse which is deeply at odds with the Service's own local traditions, and questions whether the undoubtedly necessary process of modernization must take the form being proposed by the government.     

论北周的御正和内史

御正和内史是北周六官制度中重要的官职,其职责主要是起草诏令、参与决策。御正相当于中书监,内史相当于中书令。目前学术界对这个问题的认识欠妥。御正和内史的地位在北周有一个演变过程,总的趋势是重要性不断增加。北周六官到后期弊端越来越明显,所以隋文帝刚一即位就将其废除,在西魏旧制的基础上,吸收六官的某些合理化因素,创立了隋朝的官制,原来被合并到六官中的中书省重新独立出来,而沿用六官内史之名称为内史省,其长官则称为内史令,即六官制度中的内史大夫。     

企业网络化与服务创新研究:基于关系镶嵌的视角

服务创新已成为维系企业竞争优势的重要因素。由于创新需要许多复杂的知识与资源,加之服务企业多为中小企业,就使得服务创新所需的资源不能完全由企业控制。如何与外部伙伴建立并维持关系来使用这些资源,就成为服务创新成功的重要保障。企业与外部伙伴的关系镶嵌强度不同,从而形成不同的构形,而这些构形又会对不同创新类型产生不同影响。在服务产品创新、多单元组织、顾客共创等服务创新类型中,企业与供应商、客户、竞争对手及第三方机构的关系镶嵌均发挥重要作用,其中尤以客户关系镶嵌最为重要。