Latent Profiles of Residential Stepfamily Relationship Quality and Family Stability

Stepfamilies are an increasingly common context in which adults and children reside. Past research has examined family processes that promote family resilience, such as dyadic relationships marked by warmth, positive communication, satisfaction, and closeness. What remains less clear is whether various profiles of dyadic relationship quality within stepfamilies exist and operate to influence stepfamily stability. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we conducted a latent profile analysis of mother–child, stepfather–child, and stepcouple relationship quality among a sample of 1,646 adolescents residing in married and cohabiting mother–stepfather families. Results favor a 4-profile solution, labeled high-quality, high-quality couple relationship, high-quality parent–child relationships, and low-quality. The identified latent profiles displayed differences with respect to family stability, or rates of remaining an intact family system 1 year later.     

Adolescents' Perceptions of Family Belonging in Stepfamilies

Prior research has established that adolescents' perceptions of family belonging are associated with a range of well‐being indicators and that adolescents in stepfamilies report lower levels of family belonging than adolescents in two‐biological‐parent families. Yet, we know little regarding what factors are associated with adolescents' perceptions of family belonging in stepfamilies. Guided by family systems theory, the authors addressed this issue by using nationally representative data (Add Health) to examine the associations between family characteristics and adolescents' perceptions of family belonging in stepfather families (N = 2,085). Results from structural equation models revealed that both the perceived quality of the stepfather–adolescent relationship and in particular the perceived quality of the mother–adolescent relationship were the factors most strongly associated with feelings of family belonging.     

Family Structure and Child Well‐Being: The Significance of Parental Cohabitation

Data from the 1999 National Survey of America's Families (N = 35,938) were used to examine the relationship between family structure and child well‐being. I extended prior research by including children in two‐biological‐parent cohabiting families, as well as cohabiting stepfamilies, in an investigation of the roles of economic and parental resources on behavioral and emotional problems and school engagement. Children living in two‐biological‐parent cohabiting families experience worse outcomes, on average, than those residing with two biological married parents, although among children ages 6–11, economic and parental resources attenuate these differences. Among adolescents ages 12–17, parental cohabitation is negatively associated with well‐being, regardless of the levels of these resources. Child well‐being does not significantly differ among those in cohabiting versus married stepfamilies, two‐biological‐parent cohabiting families versus cohabiting stepfamilies, or either type of cohabiting family versus single‐mother families.     

When Children Have Two Fathers: Effects of Relationships With Stepfathers and Noncustodial Fathers on Adolescent Outcomes

Using data on 189 adolescents who have a living biological father and a resident stepfather, we examined the effects of children's relationships with both fathers on child outcomes. Interview data from mothers and stepfathers provide an assessment of two types of child outcomes, internalizing and externalizing problems. Interviews with the children themselves provide data about the child's relationships with the mother, stepfather, and biological father. Results show a significant positive association between quality of relationship with stepfathers and child outcomes. Relationships with noncustodial fathers have less consistent but appear to have positive effects on child outcomes. We find that many children have good relationships with both fathers and that, even controlling for quality of relationship with the mother, good relationships with both fathers are associated with better child outcomes.     

How the birth of a child affects involvement with stepchildren

This study investigates the effect of childbearing on parental involvement in stepfamilies and intact families, based on the reports of 1,905 stepparents and biological parents from the National Survey of Families and Households. Regression analysis indicates that involvement with children declines over time, especially among respondents with only stepchildren in the household. Respondents who have had a child between waves of the survey reduce parental involvement at a slower rate than respondents who did not have a child. These effects are explained by the children's age. The birth of a child has a similar effect on parental involvement in stepfamilies and intact families. These findings suggest that the addition of a half‐sibling is not particularly beneficial to stepchildren and provides further evidence that couples with children from prior relationships should not make the decision to reproduce to “cement” stepfamily bonds.     

Relationships Between (Step)Parents and Adult (Step)Children: Explaining Influences on Life Satisfaction and Marital Quality

The purpose of this study was to examine important influences of adult (step)children’s relationships with their biological fathers, biological mothers, and resident stepparents on their life satisfaction and marital quality and the moderating role of stepparent gender. The sample (N = 215) was from Wave 3 of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH). Results illustrate that (a) biological mothers and stepparents positively influenced life satisfaction among adult (step)children regardless of stepfamily type; and (b) that the influence of parent–child relationship quality on the adult child’s marital quality did vary as a function of stepfamily type. Specifically, there was a positive link between current stepmother–child relationship quality and the focal child’s current marital quality. The opposite link was found for those reared in stepfather households.     

Involvement With Past‐Union Children and Couple Childbearing Intentions

Parents with children from both past and current unions create complex stepfamilies. The author investigated the association of past‐union children with intentions for a second or third child in the current union of 1,739 couples in the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort Study. Both partners' reports of their own resident and nonresident past‐union children as well as fathers' reports of involvement with nonresident past‐union children create a comprehensive measurement of past‐union children. The analysis revealed that coresident past‐union children were more closely associated with childbearing intentions than were nonresident past‐union children and that weekly contact with nonresident children had a stronger link to intentions than did payments. These results suggest that the value of the past‐union children as siblings and the time commitment made to these children are particularly salient to parents' decisions about further childbearing in their current union.     

The Importance of Mother-Child Relations in Studying Stepfamilies

Increasing numbers of children are living in stepfami- lies. The majority of such children are living with their biological moth- ers and a stepfather. When compared to children from nondivorced families they are overrepresented amongst the numbers of children manifesting social,'emotional and behavior problems. Many of the chil- dren report themselves to feel less affection and warmth for their moth- ers than do children from nondivorced families. The author briefly summarizes the major fmdings concerning motherduld relations in stepfalher families. She concludes that although logic would dictate that a solid positive relationship between mother and child might buffer the child against the possible negative effects of a series of important changes in the child's life, this essential factor has rarely been ad- dressed. She argues for the need to conduct more research on mother- child relations and interactions in order to integrate the lindings with other data concerning stepfamilies. This would lead to a better under- standing of stepfamily functioning and its relation to positive and nega- tive outcomes for children in remarried families.     

Patterns of Shared Religious Attendance and Positive Stepfamily Functioning

This study used data from Add Health to examine the relationship between shared participation in religious activities and positive stepfamily functioning as indicated by the closeness of the stepfather–stepchild bond, the closeness of the mother–child bond, the quality of the mother–stepfather relationship, the adolescent's perception of family belonging, and the stability of the mother–stepfather marriage. The study incorporated information on shared religious participation between adolescents and their mothers and stepfathers by examining whether adolescents reported frequently attending religious services or church‐related events with both parents, with one parent, or with neither parent. Shared religious attendance was positively associated with several aspects of stepfamily functioning above and beyond the positive association of family members’ engagement in other types of shared activities.     

Postdivorce Relationships in Families and Children's Psychosocial Adjustment

Divorced mothers and their school-aged children in 50 single-mother families and 37 stepfather families reported on mothers' ex-partner relationships, children's relationships with both parents, and children's well-being. A 2 (family structure) × 2 (gender) multivariate analysis of variance revealed a main effect of gender: Mothers with sons report higher levels of ex-partner relationship satisfaction. An interaction effect was also found: Boys in single-mother families report more acceptance and fewer conflicts than boys in stepfather families. Multiple regression analysis revealed that mother–ex-partner relationships are associated with children's problem behavior, whereas child–nonresidential father relationships are associated with positive aspects of children's well-being. The results indicate that family structure itself is not associated with child adjustment. What matters most is the quality of family relationships.     

Children With Nonresident Parents: Living Arrangements,Visitation, and Child Support

One third of all children in the United States have a nonresident parent. On the basis of 13,085 children with a nonresident parent drawn from the 1997 National Survey of America's Families, this study examines nonresident mothers' and fathers' involvement (visitation and child support) with children who reside in different household types: single‐parent families, married and cohabiting stepfamilies, and families headed by grandparents, other relatives, or nonrelatives. The relationship between children's living arrangements and nonresident parent involvement is complex and depends on both the gender of the nonresident parent and the type of involvement. Because nonresident parent involvement is low regardless of household type, policies and programs designed to increase involvement should include children in a variety of family forms.     

An Exploratory Investigation of Gay Stepfathers' Perceptions of Their Role

Abstract

This phenomenological study explored the gay stepfather role in its definitions, evolution, and factors that influenced how it was assumed and performed. Five gay men, living in a gay stepfamily that included the full or joint custody of the biological children of their partner, were asked to describe their perceptions of their family role in an open-ended, semi-structured interview. Data from all interviews were analyzed using the Atlas ti computer program (Muhr, 1997) that allowed identification of themes held commonly among the participants. Overall, the participants described stepfather roles and stepfamilies in terms that do not appear to be significantly different from heterosexual counterparts. The participants consistently mentioned the need for flexibility and patience in developing various aspects of their stepfather role such as co-parent/caretaker and friend/confidant. All participants discussed commitment to their families and the benefits gained in their stepfather role. Most had an effective, working relationship with the children's mothers. Interestingly, disclosure was not an issue in these families, and they reported feeling supported by extended family members.     

Maternal Cohabitation and Child Well‐Being Among Kindergarten Children

Using data collected from 10,511 kindergarten children and their parents from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Cohort, this study examines child well‐being across cohabiting 2‐biological‐parent families; cohabiting stepfamilies; married stepfamilies; and married 2‐biological‐parent families. Findings indicate no differences in child well‐being for children living in cohabiting stepfamilies and cohabiting 2‐biological‐parent families. Multivariate models controlling for child characteristics, economic resources, maternal depressive symptoms, stability, and parenting practices show no significant differences across family types in child well‐being indicators, with the exception of reading skills. Important factors in explaining the link between cohabitation and child well‐being include economic resources, maternal depressive symptoms, and parenting practices.     

Indebted Relationships: Child Support Arrears and Nonresident Fathers' Involvement With Children

Low‐income, nonresident fathers owe a disproportionate amount of child support arrears, creating potential challenges for these fathers and their family relationships. This article uses mediation analysis to provide new evidence about how and why child support debt is related to paternal involvement using information from 1,017 nonresident fathers in the Fragile Families Study. Results show that child support arrears are associated with nonresident fathers having significantly less contact with children, being less engaged with them in daily activities, and providing less frequent in‐kind support 9 years after the birth. This negative association between child support debt and father involvement is most strongly and consistently mediated by the quality of the relationship between the biological parents. Although child support policies are designed to facilitate fathers' economic and emotional support, these results suggest that the accruement of child support debt may serve as an important barrier to father involvement.     

The impact of biological preferences on parental investments in children and step-children

A remarriage typically involves significant changes in a family’s financial circumstance, and these changes, combined with the relative bargaining relationship between spouses, likely affect the well-being of the children who are part of the family. In this paper, I use the separate-spheres model, a theoretical model that explains the determinants of bargaining power in marriage, to analyze how a remarried couple’s bargaining relationship affects their child investment in stepfamilies. Based on this theoretical model, I build and estimate an empirical model that investigates the determinants of parental investment. As evidence of parental preference for biological children over stepchildren, I find that an increased wage rate of a biological mother significantly improves her child investment when her husband is a stepfather of the child, while there is no such effect for mothers living with the biological father of the child.

The Relationship Between Stepdaughters' Self-Esteem and Perceived Parenting Behavior

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-esteem of adolescent females living in stepfamilies and perceived parenting practices. Female adolescents from stepfamilies completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Parent Behavior Form for each parent (mother, stepfather, and nonresidential father). Results consistent with hypotheses derived from the theory of reflected appraisal suggested that when perceived stepfathers' parenting behavior is compared to that of mothers, the former was more highly related to stepdaughters' self-esteem than is the latter. Moreover, perceived nonresidential fathers' parenting behavior was not related to self-esteem. In light of these findings, suggestions for parenting in stepfamilies were made.     

Social Fathers and Child Well‐Being

Many young children born to unwed parents currently live with their biological mothers and their mothers’ new partners (social fathers). This study uses data from the Fragile Families and Child Well‐Being Study (N = 1,350) to assess whether involvement by resident social fathers is as beneficial for child well‐being as involvement by resident biological fathers and whether the involvement of the child’s nonresident biological father alters the relationship between resident social father engagement and child outcomes. Results indicate that involvement by resident social fathers is as beneficial for child well‐being as involvement by resident biological fathers and that frequent contact with the child’s nonresident biological father does not diminish the positive association between residential social father involvement and child well‐being.     

Stepfather families and the emotional well-being of adolescents

Although approximately one-third of all children born in the United States are expected to spend some time living in a married or cohabiting stepfamily, our understanding of the implications of stepfamilies for the well-being of youth remains incomplete. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this research investigates adolescent depressive symptomatology and suicide ideation in stepfather families, paying careful attention to variation in pathways of stepfamily formation. I test multiple theoretical explanations for the effects of family structure on adolescent emotional well-being, including perspectives emphasizing economic deprivation, socialization and social control, stress and instability, and community connections. I also explore the possibility that observed associations between family structure and youth well-being might be spuriously produced by the preexisting selective characteristics of stepfamilies. The results of this research point to a complex relationship between stepfamily formation and adolescent emotional well-being, suggesting both positive and negative effects.     

Marital and Parental Relationship Quality and Educational Outcomes for Youth

This research examines the effects of parental marital quality and the quality of the parent–child relationship on the educational progress of adolescents. Previous research indicates that family structure and economic capacity have significant effects on educational achievement and high school graduation rates. Few studies, however, examined the effects of the quality of the parental relationship on the educational outcomes of their children. This study is built on bioecological and social capital theories of human development suggesting that the capacity for child and youth development is enhanced when their primary relationships are supportive and provide them with social assets that encourage human capital development. The study uses data from the NLSY97, a nationally representative sample of adolescents who are being followed into adulthood. The findings indicate that family stability and living with two biological parents is a stronger predictor of high school graduation than parent marital quality and the quality of the parent–child relationship. But the data also indicate that parent marital quality and the quality of the parent–child relationship have a strong and positive effect on postsecondary education access among those who do graduate from high school. These findings are interpreted in light of the contribution of relationship quality to further educational involvement and the implications this has for workforce development and successful labor force competition in a global economy.     

Are All Dads Equal? Biology Versus Marriage as a Basis for Paternal Investment

The stepfather relationship provides a source of potential conflict in remarriage families, because the mother and partner may have different interests in the well‐being of children from a prior union. Using three different theoretical perspectives—biology, sociology, and selection—this paper examines the engagement, availability, participation, and warmth of residential fathers in married biological parent, unmarried biological parent, married stepparent, and cohabiting father families. The data come from 2,531 children and their parents who were interviewed during the 1997 wave of the Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Biology explains less of father involvement than anticipated once differences between fathers are controlled. Marriage continues to differentiate paternal investment levels, as do age of child and financial responsibility to nonresidential children.