Patterns of intimate partner violence: correlates and outcomes

Battered women experience different constellations of violence and abusive behavior characterized by various combinations of physical violence, sexual violence, psychological abuse, and stalking. The goals of the current study were to determine whether it was possible to identify empirically derived and meaningful patterns of intimate partner violence (IPV) and to examine correlates and outcomes of the IPV patterns. Three IPV patterns were identified using cluster analysis. Pattern 1 was characterized by moderate levels of physical violence, psychological abuse, and stalking but little sexual violence. Pattern 2 was characterized by high levels of physical violence, psychological abuse, and stalking but low levels of sexual violence. Pattern 3 was characterized by high levels of all violence types. IPV Pattern 3 was associated with the highest prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression, and IPV Pattern 2 had the highest levels of revictimization during the year following recruitment. The clinical and policy implications of the findings are discussed.     

Intimate partner violence,health, sexuality,and academic performance among a national sample of undergraduates

ABSTRACT

Objective: To determine the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and academic performance among heterosexual and sexual minority undergraduates, including whether health mediates this relationship. Participants: A national sample of undergraduate students aged 18–24 years old who completed the 2011–2014 National College Health Assessment IIb (N = 85,071). Methods: We used structural equation modeling to create a latent variable of IPV victimization (stalking, physical, sexual, and emotional violence) in order to test its relationship with health (physical and mental) and two indicators of academic performance (GPA and perceived academic difficulties), according to participants’ sexual identity (heterosexual, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and unsure). Results: Regardless of sexual identity, undergraduates who reported IPV were more likely to have lower GPA and increased academic difficulties. Health mediates this relationship, such that IPV reduces health, which negatively affects performance. Conclusions: IPV poses a serious threat to undergraduates’ health and educational success. Findings warrant universal prevention and intervention.     

Stalking victimization in the context of intimate partner violence

This article is one of the first to extensively compare characteristics of women who do and do not report stalking by a violent partner or ex-partner using a large sample of women with civil protective orders. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to examine similarities and differences in relationship and victimization history characteristics, mental health symptoms, help-seeking, and protective order violations for women who report being stalked in the past year (n = 345) by the partner they received a protective order against compared to women who received a protective order against a violent partner but who report no stalking by that partner ever in the relationship (n = 412). Results indicate that women who report partner stalking have more severe partner violence victimization, histories, increased distress, greater fear, and more protective order violations, suggesting that partner stalking victimization warrants more research and practice attention.     

Nonlethal intimate partner violence: examining race, gender, and income patterns

The correlation between race of victim and intimate partner violence (IPV) is examined. Previous research showing a relationship between Black victims and higher levels of violence were based on uni-variate examinations and often do not consider other important factors. This paper presents national estimates of IPV by victim's race using the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), 1993-1999. The estimates based only on race are then disaggregated to account for the victim's gender and household income. Uni-variate findings demonstrate that victim's race is significantly related to rates of intimate partner violence. However, after controlling for both victim's gender and annual household income, the victim's race is no longer significant. The importance of understanding intimate partner violence through a person's socioeconomic status rather than race is discussed.     

Patterns of intimate partner violence in young adult couples: nonviolent, unilaterally violent, and mutually violent couples

This study examined nonviolent (NV), unilaterally violent (UV), and mutually violent (MV) patterns of perpetrated intimate partner violence in relation to dyadic relationship quality and partner injury. The respondents were 1,294 young adult, Add Health partners (AHP) and their non-Add Health partners (NAHP), in dating, engaged, or in marital relationships, who were participants in Wave III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Using both partner reports of perpetration to classify intimate partner violence (IPV) patterns resulted in 25% of couples with a MV pattern, and 75% of couples with a UV pattern; among those couples (41%) reporting any perpetrated IPV. Results also showed poorer relationship quality and higher partner sensation-seeking scores among MV and UV couples when contrasted with NV couples. Those couples with MV patterns were more likely to contain partner injury than those with UV patterns.     

Women and men's use of coercive control in intimate partner violence

This study examined the relationship between coercive control and intimate partner violence (IPV) for men and women and for targets and perpetrators. One hundred and seventy-two participants (85 men, 87 women) recruited from three samples reported on their own and their partner's behavior. IPV was measured using the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2). Coercive control was measured using modified items from the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory (PMWI). Coercive control was associated with IPV, and this relationship was similar for men and women across the three samples. In fact, coercive control was predominantly reciprocal in nature, with women and men reporting both receiving and perpetrating controlling behaviors. Overall, coercive controlling behaviors were characteristic of individuals within violent relationships, regardless of their physical abuse status. The experience of violence, rather than gender, was the best predictor of coercive control.     

Bidirectional, unidirectional, and nonviolence: a comparison of the predictors among partnered young adults

In order to more fully understand the context and impact of intimate partner violence (IPV), it is important to make distinctions between different types of relationship aggression. As such, the current study longitudinally examines the differential effects of childhood, adolescent, and demographic factors on three different partner violence groups: those who experience bidirectional IPV, those who experience unidirectional IPV, and those who do not experience either form of IPV. Multinomial logistic regression results reveal that depressive symptoms and lower partner education predict bidirectional when compared to unidirectional IPV and nonviolence. In contrast, other risk factors such as illicit drug use are found to be predictors of unidirectional violence only, which reveals that the correlates of violence vary depending upon the type of IPV examined.     

Pathways from physical childhood abuse to partner violence in young adulthood

Analyses investigated several competing hypotheses about developmental pathways from childhood physical abuse and early aggression to intimate partner violence (IPV) for young adult males and females at age 24. Potential intervening variables included: adolescent violence (age 15 to 18), negative emotionality at age 21, and quality of one's relationship with an intimate partner at age 24. At the bivariate level, nearly all variables were associated in the expected directions. However, tests of possible intervening variables revealed only a few significant results. For males, a strong direct effect of abuse on later partner violence was maintained in each model. For females, the quality of one's relationship with an intimate partner did appear to mediate the effect of childhood abuse on later violence to a partner, raising the possibility of gender differences in developmental pathways linking abuse to IPV. Implications with regard to prevention are discussed.     

Coercive controlling behaviors in intimate partner violence in male same-sex relationships:A mixed-methods study

Using mixed methods, we explored the role of coercive controlling behaviors in a high-risk sample of 126 men in violent same-sex relationships. Contrary to a prediction that separate factors of physical violence and coercive control might emerge, a simple principle components analysis supported that male same-sex relationship intimate partner violence (IPV) is essentially unidimensional. Qualitative narratives supported a single latent factor solution of violence, and that coercive controlling behaviors better detect IPV dynamics within the same violent encounters (i.e., weapon use), even when compared to profiles defined by physical violence. Narratives also highlighted gender-different tactics of coercion used, underscoring importance of context-based assessments.     

Youth violence trajectories and proximal characteristics of intimate partner violence

Analyses first examined the developmental course of intimate partner violence (IPV), beginning with trajectories of youth violence. We then examined potential mediators of prior youth violence trajectories in models predicting later IPV perpetration as an outcome. Potential mediators include risks associated with the individual (e.g., current alcohol and drug use and mental health diagnosis), characteristics of a perpetrator's partner (e.g., use of alcohol/drugs and history of antisocial behavior), and aspects of the surrounding community (e.g., neighborhood norms favorable to violence and drug use). Data are from the Seattle Social Development Project, a longitudinal study of over 800 individuals followed from elementary school to young adulthood (age 24). Findings suggest that both chronic and late-increaser patterns of youth violence elevated the likelihood of later IPV perpetration. Partial mediation effects of the relation between youth violence and IPV were found for variables related to one's partner and the surrounding community. Individual characteristics of the perpetrator were not uniquely predictive of IPV when measured as a risk index and modeled along with other risk factors. Findings indicate that the risk of IPV could be lessened by addressing earlier forms of violence and by intervening to reduce risks within and across domains of influence.     

Victim of and witness to violence: an interactional perspective on mothers' perceptions of children exposed to intimate partner violence

This article reports a study of how mothers perceive the effects of intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy and children's exposure to IPV: (a) Do interactional aspects of IPV have a negative impact on the fetus during pregnancy or on the newborn baby? and (b) Is there a relationship between interactional aspects of IPV and (a) children's risk of being exposed to IPV and (b) the age of the child when at risk for exposure to IPV? A representative sample of 137 IPV help-seeking mothers in Norway was interviewed. Severity of physical IPV and injury from sexual IPV increased the risk of consequences to the fetus. Frequency of physical and psychological IPV increased the likelihood of children's exposure. Duration of the partnership increased the risk of children's exposure to physical and sexual IPV. Finally, there was a negative linear association between children's age when exposed for the first time and frequency of physical and psychological IPV.     

A review of research on women's use of violence with male intimate partners

This article provides a review of research literature on women who use violence with intimate partners. The central purpose is to inform service providers in the military and civilian communities who work with domestically violent women. The major points of this review are as follows: (a) women's violence usually occurs in the context of violence against them by their male partners; (b) in general, women and men perpetrate equivalent levels of physical and psychological aggression, but evidence suggests that men perpetrate sexual abuse, coercive control, and stalking more frequently than women and that women also are much more frequently injured during domestic violence incidents; (c) women and men are equally likely to initiate physical violence in relationships involving less serious "situational couple violence," and in relationships in which serious and very violent "intimate terrorism" occurs, men are much more likely to be perpetrators and women victims; (d) women's physical violence is more likely than men's violence to be motivated by self-defense and fear, whereas men's physical violence is more likely than women's to be driven by control motives; (e) studies of couples in mutually violent relationships find more negative effects for women than for men; and (f) because of the many differences in behaviors and motivations between women's and men's violence, interventions based on male models of partner violence are likely not effective for many women.     

Maternal childhood parental abuse history and current intimate partner violence: data from the Pacific Islands Families Study

Pacific peoples are a rapidly growing but socially disadvantaged segment of New Zealand society. Within this context, individuals may be particularly vulnerable to the experience of intimate partner violence (IPV). The aim of the study was to establish the association between the experience of maternal and/or paternal emotional or physical abuse and current severe physical partner violence perpetration or victimization among a cohort of Pacific women. Paternal physical abuse was the only statistically significant risk factor from childhood parenting history that was independently associated with severe physical perpetration and victimization within the mother's current intimate partner relationship (RR 2.6). These findings highlight the deleterious effect of paternal physical violence on subsequent IPV and contribute to the development of empirically based and considered ways to approach these complex phenomena.     

Stalking as a variant of intimate violence: implications from a young adult sample

There is a limited but growing literature which suggests that stalking is a variant of intimate violence. The purpose of this study was to examine physical, psychological, and stalking victimization and perpetration among males and females. Alcohol use was also examined. The sample was 46 male and 84 female undergraduate students who reported stalking victimization and perpetration after a difficult breakup, and psychological and physical victimization and perpetration during that specific relationship. Overall, 27% of the sample study was classified into the stalking victimization group, which is consistent with other stalking prevalence rates among college samples. For females, stalking victimization was significantly associated with physical and psychological abuse victimization. For males, stalking victimization was significantly associated with psychological abuse victimization. However, there was also a strong significant reciprocal relationship of stalking and psychological abuse victimization and perpetration, especially for males. Also, alcohol use was significantly associated with victimization and perpetration of stalking and psychological abuse for males. The data from this study contribute to the hypothesis that stalking is a variant of or extension of intimate violence, especially for females. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Clergy training for effective response to intimate partner violence disclosure: Immediate and long-term benefits

ABSTRACT

This study reports findings from an intimate partner violence-training project in which 104 Seventh-Day Adventist pastors received a 4-hr training in responding effectively to intimate partner violence (IPV) disclosure. The educational endeavor targeted three areas for improvement in clergy response: (a) increasing pastors’ understanding of the unique dynamics in abusive relationships, (b) providing information on IPV resources and services, and (c) developing pastors’ abilities and motivations to be proactive in addressing IPV. Pretest, posttest and 1-year follow up data indicate that pastors who engaged in IPV training demonstrated immediate and long-term positive changes. Specifically, participants showed improvements in each of the targeted areas. Beyond the gains in knowledge and attitudes about IPV, the study results also indicate that pastors receiving training expanded their activities to positively address IPV in their congregations. Social workers can play a significant role in addressing clergy training needs by strengthening pastors’ abilities to respond appropriately to parishioners’ IPV disclosures.     

Maternal experiences of intimate partner violence and adolescent delinquency: Pathways through parenting stress and harsh parenting behaviors

Abstract

Women with children in the home are more likely to report experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) compared to women without children in the home. Consistently, research has identified an association between maternal experiences of IPV and adolescent delinquency. While research has suggested that this link may be explained through parenting factors, there are limited studies exploring sequential mediators that may explain how maternal experiences of IPV are related to distal outcomes, such as adolescent delinquency. The present study investigated mechanisms that might explain the association between early maternal experiences of IPV and adolescent delinquency. Data were collected as part of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), a longitudinal birth cohort study. Using a structural equation modeling approach, parenting stress and both physically and psychologically harsh parenting behaviors were examined as sequential mediators in the association between the latent construct of maternal experiences of IPV and adolescent delinquency. Findings supported one sequential mediation mechanism: maternal parenting stress at child age five and psychologically harsh parenting at child age nine mediated the association between maternal experiences of IPV and adolescent delinquency at child age 15. In contrast, support was not demonstrated for the other proposed sequential mediation mechanism: maternal parenting stress at child age five and physically aggressive parenting at year nine did not mediate the link between maternal experiences of IPV and adolescent delinquency child age 15. The present study suggests maternal parenting stress and psychologically harsh parenting behaviors should be examined when referred for psychological services for experiences of IPV.     

The impact of severe stalking experienced by acutely battered women: an examination of violence, psychological symptoms and strategic responding

Stalking has been relatively understudied compared to other dimensions of intimate partner violence. The purpose of this article was to examine concurrent and subsequent intimate partner abuse, strategic responses and symptomatic consequences of severe stalking experienced by battered women. Thirty-five battered women classified as "relentlessly stalked" and 31 infrequently stalked battered women were compared. Compared to infrequently stalked battered women, relentlessly stalked battered women reported: (a) more severe concurrent physical violence, sexual assault and emotional abuse: (b) increased post-separation assault and stalking; (c) increased rates of depression and PTSD; and (d) more extensive use of strategic responses to abuse. Results underscore the scope and magnitude of stalking faced by battered women and have implications for assessment and intervention strategies.     

Adult Attachment Stability–Instability Before and After Marriage Between Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and Non‐IPV Women Separated from Partners During Military Duty in Indonesia

The quality of attachment between intimate partners is important for women to maintain healthy relationships. Yet, the quality of attachment style and relationship can be marred and disrupted in women exposed to trauma due to intimate partner violence (IPV). Research suggests that the impact of trauma on women can be transmitted over generations due to the inability to regulate emotions, specifically in dealing with their children. The aim of this study was to explore the disruption of adult attachment patterns by comparing a group of women in Indonesia who have been affected by IPV, and a group of women who have not been affected by IPV but who have been separated from their partner during military duty. A cross‐sectional study comparing two groups: women exposed to IPV (n = 35) and women not exposed to IPV (n = 35) was carried out. The adult attachment scale before and after marriage was obtained using Experiences in Close Relationships‐Revised scales. The results revealed a significant shift of attachment style on the Avoidant dimension of the non‐IPV group separated by partner military duty and a slight change on the overall attachment of the IPV group, but relative stability on the Anxiety dimensions. The study interpreted the findings as being more supportive of the prototype perspective rather than the revisionist perspective. Family therapists may reduce the attachment Avoidant dimension as a therapeutic goal of intervention to change the insecure to a more secure working model.     

The role of alcohol use in intimate partner violence and non-intimate partner violence

Alcohol use is a risk factor for violent victimization in general, and intimate partner violence in particular. However, there has been limited empirical attention on whether alcohol use is more often associated with IPV or non-IPV offenses. Further, few studies on the association between alcohol use and victimization have assessed for incident-specific alcohol use, or examined both victim and perpetrator alcohol use. We used data from the National Violence Against Women Survey to determine if incident-specific alcohol use is more prevalent in IPV or non-IPV physical assaults, and to determine if the association varied by gender. Results indicated that among women, perpetrator alcohol use was twice as likely in IPV incidents than in non-IPV incidents, but among men, perpetrator alcohol use was four times less likely in IPV incidents than in non-IPV incidents. Our results highlight the important role of gender in understanding the association between alcohol use and victimization risk.     

Closing in: Stalking in the Context of Intimate Partner Abuse

This article reviews the literature on stalking in the context of intimate partner abuse (IPA). It is now known that stalking is most common among people who know each other, with a high prevalence among current and former intimates. Moreover, there is a strong correlation between stalking and IPA, both physical violence and emotional abuse. This is referred to as stalking in the context of IPA. This type of stalking differs from other types in terms of its nature, prevalence, and effects. In addition, there are differences among intimate partner stalkers as well. Future research needs to focus on this type of stalking and explore theories behind why it is occurring and ways we should be responding to and treating it.