“Crowding in” or “crowding out”? An examination of the impact of the welfare state on generalized social trust

Generalized social trust is correlated with increased levels of civic engagement, lower crime rates, and greater economic growth. Many scholars believe that equality provides the conditions in which social trust can flourish. Thus, welfare programs might be one way to generate social trust. However, the relationship between social spending and trust is contested: Some argue it is negative, while others argue it is positive. This study examined the effects of total social welfare expenditures on social trust in 18 OECD countries, holding constant individual characteristics, country characteristics, and country and year effects. Fixed effects analyses indicate that every additional percent of gross domestic product spent on social expenditures 5 years prior is associated with a 4.7 percent increased likelihood that respondents of that country will endorse trusting other people. Further testing for reverse causality found no significant association between trust and later social expenditures, supporting the claim that expenditures drive trust instead of the reverse.     

Redefining “Old Age” and “Dependency” in East Asia: Is “Prospective Aging” A More Helpful Concept?

East Asian societies are currently some of the most rapidly aging in the world. Projections of the traditional old‐age dependency ratios (OADR) present a daunting future of the size of the aged population both in absolute terms and, in the context of low fertility, relative to the future workforce. Recently scholars, especially Sanderson and Scherbov, have argued that OADR is inadequate as a guide to future levels of dependency based, as it is, on past scenarios of “old age” and “dependency” rather than current and future notions. Indeed, in the context of rapidly aging settings in East Asia with developmental welfare states, the OADR has probably never been truly relevant, is profoundly unhelpful and could lead to policy paralysis. As such, Sanderson and Scherbov suggested a new method to measure aging prospectively to take into account both improved life expectancy and health across the life‐course. We introduce these new measurements as a possible new, more radical and optimistic way to think about aging in East Asia. These measurements more accurately demonstrate the “boundaries” to “dependency” and, hence, demonstrate the potential room for social policy interventions to maximize “active aging” for the population currently, perhaps incorrectly, defined as “old” and “dependent”.     

A Shrinking “Digital Divide”? The Provision of Classroom Computers across Urban School Systems

Objective . To determine the extent of the urban school "digital divide"—the varying provision of computer technology to students of different races and classes—and whether it has changed in the 1990s. Methods . Ordinary least squares and logit regression analysis is conducted on the 1995 Council of Urban Boards of Education survey, encompassing 72 urban school districts. Results . Districts with a higher percentage of African American students provided fewer computers per student, whereas community educational level, family income, and Latino enrollment had no effect. On the other hand, districts with more African American students reported recent decreases in the student-to-computer ratio, and comparisons with recent research suggest that the magnitude of this digital divide has decreased. Conclusions . Urban school districts appear to be addressing the digital divide, although inequalities in computer access remain.     

“A game of two halves?” Understanding the process and outcomes of English care home closures: Qualitative and quantitative perspectives

With care services increasingly delivered via a market there is always a risk that care homes could fail financially or struggle in terms of quality, ultimately having to close. When this happens, the received wisdom is that subsequent relocation can be detrimental to the health and well‐being of older residents (possibly even culminating in increased mortality). However, there is very little formal evidence in the United Kingdom (UK) or beyond to guide policymakers and local leaders when undertaking such sensitive work. Against this background, this article reports findings from an independent evaluation of what is believed to be the largest care home closure program in the UK (and possibly beyond). This consisted of qualitative interviews with older people, families, care staff, and social work assessors during the closure process in one case study care home and one linked day center, as well as self‐reported health and quality of life data for older people from 13 homes/linked day centers at initial assessment, 28 days after moving and at 12‐month follow up. The study is significant in presenting public data about such a contested topic from such a large‐scale closure process, in its focus on both process and outcomes, in its mixed‐methods approach, and in its engagement with older people, families, and care staff alongside the use of more formal outcome measures. Despite significant distress part‐way through the process, the article suggests that outcomes either stayed the same or improved for most of our sample up to a year after moving to new services. Care homes closures may thus be a “tale of two halves”, with inevitable distress during the closure but, if done well, with scope for improved outcomes for some people in the longer term. These findings are crucial for current policy and practice given that the risk of major closures seems to be growing and given that there is virtually no prior research on which to base local or national closure processes. While some of this research is specific to England, the underlying issue of care home closures and lessons learned around good practice will also apply to other countries.     

“Risk Society”: The Cult of Theory and the Millennium?

The relation between theory and empirical data in sociology and social policy is explored through a critique of Ulrich Beck's influential book, Risk Society . Consideration is given to the extent to which a book that purports to describe contemporary societies in general is actually rooted in the unique circumstances of postwar Germany. The various arguments of Risk Society are reviewed and tested against relevant empirical reports from England. Many of the historical and contemporary generalizations made by Beck are shown to be questionable. The conclusion reflects on the popularity of the genre in which Beck is working and questions the consistent glumness of its attitude to contemporary societies—whether those of the 1890s or the 1990s. The new millennium might be a time for a new spirit and the rejection of the nostalgia and conservatism of humanities-oriented scholarship.     

Ageing in “Poor Household” or Ageing into Poverty? Tackling the Policy Dilemma of Redistribution

The policy issue of how to target poor households rather than provide universal coverage takes the primary place in the question of redistribution where resources are limited. The Government of India's social protection programs, particularly the old age pension for the informal sector of the economy, has taken a targeting approach. In this article we show that there is a case for universal coverage since ageing households experience greater exclusion from market-based protection as well as from informal (household-based) protection. We make the argument for universal coverage on two grounds: first, a targeted approach has resulted in leakage, indicating that non-poor elderly individuals in the unorganized sector also require some sort of support. Though they are valid, we do not resort to traditional arguments against targeting, such as that it creates institutional lock-in mechanisms and stigmatizes the recipients. Second, the loss of income on age-related matters (e.g. hospitalization) or the ability of elderly individuals to gain credit is not particularly class-specific, although the targeting policy implies it is. The article is based on the secondary data source of the National Sample Survey, primary data sources, particularly those conducted by the authors in Kerala and Maharashtra and specifically designed for the ageing population, and ethnographic observations from fieldwork.     

Agency‐Based Support: A “Last‐Resort” Strategy for Low‐Income Families?*

Objectives. Agency‐based support, defined as material assistance received from charities and private social service agencies, can constitute an important source of help for low‐income families. This study examines the socioeconomic determinants of agency‐based support and seeks to reveal whether it constitutes an alternative source of support for families whose personal networks can provide only limited assistance. Methods. Multivariate analyses were conducted using data from “Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three City Study,” a study of low‐income mothers living in disadvantaged urban neighborhoods. Results. Findings reveal that respondents with high levels of network support were significantly less likely to use agency‐based support. No association, however, was found with network burden, which led to rejecting the alternative hypothesis that people may use agency‐based support to limit their interactions with demanding network members. Conclusions. Overall, findings suggest that agency‐based support constitutes an alternative source of assistance for those who receive little or no support from family and friends. Policy implications in light of welfare reform are discussed.