家庭因素对性别工资差异的影响——基于CFPS数据的实证分析

随着职业性别隔离现象不断减少、男女受教育水平和教育收益率的逐步收敛,人力资本、职业和行业分布已经无法解释我国性别工资差异不断扩大的趋势。从家庭出发,考察婚姻、家务劳动分工和子女这些典型的家庭特征因素对性别工资差异的影响,运用2016年CFPS数据,在解决内生性问题的条件下,研究结果表明:婚姻通过增加女性家务劳动时间和子女间接影响女性工资,家务劳动时间和母亲身份对女性工资率具有显著的惩罚效应,女性平均每周承担家务劳动17小时,这导致其周工资率减少34%,子女降低母亲8.5%的周工资率;相对于未婚女性,已婚女性每周多做7小时家务,这降低了她们14%的周工资率。男性则存在婚姻溢价效应。Oaxaca分解也显示,家庭特征,尤其是家务劳动时间,是性别歧视之外导致性别工资差距的主要原因。本文按收入阶层的异质性分析表明,家庭特征可能引起低收入阶层更大的性别工资差异。本文的分析还显示,家务劳动对男性和女性具有门槛效应,且阈值位于10.5小时左右。     

婚姻挤压对农村流动男性养老意愿的影响——基于压力应对理论的分析

我国农村持续的性别失衡带来严重的男性婚姻挤压,对家庭养老造成不利影响。本文利用2009年福建省X市的农村流动人口调查数据,基于压力应对理论分析主客观婚姻挤压对农村流动男性养老意愿的影响。分析发现,在面对未来养老压力时,客观存在的婚姻挤压现状比主观遭受婚姻挤压更能构成养老压力源,大龄未婚男性拥有的养老资源少于已婚男性,因此大龄未婚男性更容易采用消极的退行方式应对养老,即不为养老做任何准备。     

性别失衡背景下大龄未婚男性的商业性行为——基于中国农村地区的研究发现

基于2008年安徽省CH市JC区的调查数据,通过与同年龄段已婚男性的对比,对性别失衡背景下中国农村大龄未婚男性的商业性行为、安全套使用情况及其影响因素进行分析。研究发现,在中国性别失衡背景下,男性婚姻挤压导致大龄未婚男性难以获取正常、稳定的性行为,商业性行为作为一种有效的替代和弥补方式,其发生率在农村地区的大龄未婚男性当中存在显著升高的可能性;相对于较高的商业性行为发生率而言,大龄未婚男性的安全套使用率处于较低的水平,使得大龄未婚男性的商业性行为具有高风险特征。     

积极生育政策对我国男性婚姻挤压影响的趋势分析

在性别失衡与人口老龄化的双重影响下,我国男性婚姻挤压不断加剧。文章基于第七次全国人口普查数据,运用单区域离散型未婚人口发展方程,充分考虑积极生育政策对出生人口性别结构和年龄结构的不同影响,设置不同的方案预测2021-2100年全国未婚人口年龄性别结构数据,利用未婚男性过剩规模、潜在初婚比、男性终身未婚规模和比例测度我国未婚男性婚姻挤压及其后果的变动趋势,得到如下结论：第一,2020-2100年婚龄未婚男性婚姻挤压先加剧后减缓,婚龄未婚男性过剩规模将在2040年左右达到峰值4 913万人。潜在初婚比将在2052年左右达到峰值183.9。第二,1970-2050年出生队列男性终身未婚规模和比例呈现先上升后下降的变动趋势,2020年左右出生队列达到峰值,“10后”男性将面临最为严重的男性婚姻挤压。第三,积极生育政策有利于从性别结构和年龄结构两个方面缓解未来男性婚姻挤压。出生性别比越快恢复到正常水平则未来男性婚姻挤压程度越低;总和生育率越高则未来男性婚姻挤压程度越低。第四,我国男性婚姻挤压以往被高估。根据最新的第七次全国普查数据,采用逆存活法测算发现将近一半的“失踪”女性被找回。     

婚前同居对初婚年龄的影响研究 ——基于Heckman二阶段模型的分析

在现代社会中,初婚年龄持续攀升,婚前同居现象越来越多地出现。那么婚前同居与初婚年龄之间有没有关系?本文基于婚前同居对离婚影响的选择假说与经历假说进一步探讨两种假说与初婚年龄之间的关系。选择假说认为同居者自身特征促使他们追求思想解放,消极地影响着婚姻稳定性,因此与其同居伴侣之间并不想建立一个长期的契约。由此推测这些积极影响同居的特征因素会给结婚带来消极影响,婚前同居就会推延初婚年龄;经历假说认为共同生活的经历将会改变同居者对婚姻的认识,他们不再强烈地致力于追求婚姻的身份。他们将会接受婚前同居这种暂时性的本质。很多夫妇认为同居提供了一个婚姻的替代品,结婚的欲望由此下降。因此这也将推延初婚年龄。除两个假说外,同居者想要通过同居搜集更多对方的信息,这种想要更多地了解对方的想法也将推延初婚年龄。在理论分析的基础上,本文基于2010年CFPS抽样调查数据,采用Heckman二阶段模型纠正婚前同居的自选择性带来的偏误并检验婚前同居推延初婚年龄的研究假设。研究结果发现婚前同居使女性与男性的初婚年龄分别推迟了0.415岁与0.868岁。在控制婚前同居的自选择性后,婚前同居对女性与男性初婚年龄的影响仍然很大且显著,初婚年龄分别推迟了0.431岁与0.890岁,证明婚前同居将会提高初婚年龄。这进一步明晰了婚前同居在我国家庭形成过程中的作用。婚前同居对初婚年龄的推延作用无疑为我国全面二孩政策下出生人口数量增长带来消极影响。     

婚姻状态对女性劳动参与的影响——加入内生性的考察

婚姻是影响女性劳动参与的一个重要因素,但是国内已有研究只是将婚姻状态作为控制变量,缺乏对婚姻状态与劳动参与之间作用机理的深入分析,女性市场劳动参与和其婚姻状态之间的内生性也一直被忽视。本文从劳动参与决策出发,从市场工资与保留工资的决定因素入手,使用第三期妇女社会地位调查数据进行实证分析,在婚姻的框架下分别探讨个人特征、家庭特征、世代特征和宏观经济特征对女性劳动参与的影响。基于Probit模型的回归结果,已婚状态和未婚相比对女性的劳动参与存在显著的负向影响,对城镇女性的负向影响大于对农村女性的负向影响。对于不同出生队列,婚姻状态对女性劳动参与的影响存在差异。Wald检验发现对于城镇样本,婚姻状态和劳动参与之间确实存在内生关系,对于农村样本,婚姻状态对于劳动参与并不是一个内生变量,因此后文的内生性分析是基于城镇样本进行的。在通过人口性别比和婚姻登记条例的修订控制住内生性后,通过两步法的IV Probit模型回归结果显示已婚状态对城镇女性劳动参与的负向影响显著变大,这与现在很多城市女性因为接受教育和追求事业而晚婚密切相关。提高已婚女性的劳动参与需要社会公共服务体系和劳动力市场的完善,缓解女性面临的家庭和事业的冲突。     

青年人口迁出对农村婚姻的影响

我国当前农村青年外流对地区婚姻问题和自身婚姻的影响主要表现在三个方面:一是对自身婚配的影响,一些大龄未婚农村外流青年择偶难;二是贫困地区女青年婚姻迁移导致当地男性青年成婚困难;三是农村已婚青年流动对婚姻稳定性产生影响。针对农村青年外流带来的婚姻问题,要关心大龄未婚打工仔和打工女的婚姻问题;要关注农村单亲家庭中的孩子;要关注婚姻迁移导致的贫困农村地区“弱势累积”问题。     

中国男性婚姻挤压的态势与特征——基于第七次全国人口普查数据的分析

基于第七次全国人口普查数据并结合第四、五、六次全国人口普查数据,全面分析近年来中国男性婚姻挤压的态势与特征。研究表明,男性婚姻挤压现象及其后果已全面显现：2010～2020年全国婚龄人口性别比急剧升高,预计2036年将升至峰值116.13;与以往主要集中在社会经济发展较为落后的地区不同,当前经济发达且城镇化率较高地区的未婚男性过剩现象也逐步显现;男性婚姻挤压导致男女两性间初婚水平和模式的差异巨大,男性初婚概率较女性明显偏低,未婚男性成婚期望年数大幅增加;农村大龄未婚男性的规模始终较大、比例始终较高,城镇大龄未婚男性群体也日益凸显,2010～2020年45岁及以上城镇未婚男性由176.04万人增至387.77万人;大龄未婚男性的经济资源相对匮乏,对最低生活保障金的依赖加重,在老年阶段处于不健康状态的比例上升且独居比例较高。     

在校研究生生殖健康知识、态度和行为情况的调查报告

本文报告了对８个城市１８所高等院校的２７３０名已婚和未婚男女研究生生殖健康知识、态度和行为调查的结果。调查表明，中国在校研究生的生殖健康知识仍很缺乏，未婚研究生尤为严重，已婚、未婚研究生对婚前性行为的看法比较一致，但女性研究生所持态度比男性谨慎；在校已婚研究生的避孕率为７２．９６％，明显低于全国水平，所采用的避孕措施多为临时性的方法；有１０．９％的学生有婚前性经历；３８．６％的已婚女研究生有人工流产经历。无论是已婚还是未婚研究生都期望学校能开展生殖健康教育，同时也能提供适合学生特点的计划生育服务。     

土家族地区出生人口性别比失衡的调查分析

自20世纪90年代末以来,由于土家族女性的婚姻迁移,土家族地区的婚姻市场就呈现为男多女少格局,预演了出生人口性别比严重失衡的中国几十年内的性别后果。土家族地区男多女少的性别格局产生了三方面的性别后果：男性择偶困难;逐渐形成了“宁要两女也不要两男”的生育性别期望;已婚夫妻的权力关系向妻子倾斜。土家族地区的实践告诫人们：出生人口性别比失衡本是根深蒂固的男权文化借助现代B超技术的产物．侣却会在几十年后以同样残酷的方式惩罚着男性和罄个社会。     

Is the male marriage premium due to selection? The effect of shotgun weddings on the return to marriage

In standard cross-sectional wage regressions, married men appear to earn 10 to 20% more than comparable never married men. One proposed explanation for this male marriage premium is that men may be selected into marriage on the basis of characteristics valued by employers as well as by spouses or because they earn high wages. This paper examines the selection hypothesis by focusing on shotgun weddings, which may make marital status uncorrelated with earnings ability. We compare the estimated marriage premium between white men whose first marriages are soon followed by a birth and other married white men in the United States. The return to marriage differs little for married men with a premarital conception and other married men, and the results suggest that at most 10% of the estimated marriage premium is due to selection. Received: 19 June 1998/Accepted: 10 July 2000     

New Evidence Against a Causal Marriage Wage Premium

Recent research has shown that men’s wages rise more rapidly than expected prior to marriage, but interpretations diverge on whether this indicates selection or a causal effect of anticipating marriage. We seek to adjudicate this debate by bringing together literatures on (1) the male marriage wage premium; (2) selection into marriage based on men’s economic circumstances; and (3) the transition to adulthood, during which both union formation and unusually rapid improvements in work outcomes often occur. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, we evaluate these perspectives. We show that wage declines predate rather than follow divorce, indicating no evidence that staying married benefits men’s wages. We find that older grooms experience no unusual wage patterns at marriage, suggesting that the observed marriage premium may simply reflect co-occurrence with the transition to adulthood for younger grooms. We show that men entering shotgun marriages experience similar premarital wage gains as other grooms, casting doubt on the claim that anticipation of marriage drives wage increases. We conclude that the observed wage patterns are most consistent with men marrying when their wages are already rising more rapidly than expected and divorcing when their wages are already falling, with no additional causal effect of marriage on wages.     

The declining marital-status earnings differential

Earnings differentials between married and unmarried men have been declining since the late 1960s. We consider two possible explanations for this decline: changes in the nature of selection into marriage; and changes in role specialization within marriage. Our analysis of changes in marriage differentials within cohorts supports only a small contribution of changes in selection. There is some evidence that differences in human-capital investment between married and unmarried men have fallen over time, but this effect has apparently been largely offset by increases in the return to that human capital.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1991 Population Association of America meetings. Helpful comments were provided by Noreen Goldman, David Neumark, Robert Willis, and seminar participants at the University of Michigan.     

结婚、生育对工资的影响研究 ——基于性别工资差距角度

随着技术进步和女性人力资本水平的提高,男性和女性的劳动生产率差异逐渐缩小,但性别工资差距在我国是否缩小?全面开放的"二胎政策"又是否加深了女性就业困境?本文使用CGSS 2015数据,从结婚、生育角度出发,运用工具变量法、分位数回归、Oaxaca-blinder分解等方法考察婚育事件对劳动力工资的影响及其作用机制,探讨婚育视角下的性别工资差距问题,提出相应对策建议以促进性别公平。研究首先通过对城镇劳动力的婚姻状态和生育情况与工资性收入进行实证分析,发现在控制了个人特征、人力资本、职业性质和地区等因素后,性别工资差距仍显著存在且婚育事件拉大了该差距。其中结婚使男女劳动力的工资水平均有所提高,但由于原始工资水平的差异和溢价大小的不同,性别工资差距被拉大;生育使男性工资增长,女性工资缩水,这同样加大了性别工资差距。其次基于分位数回归结果进行Oaxaca-blinder平均工资差异分解,结果显示随着收入的增加,性别工资差距在缩小,但婚姻和生育对此差距的解释力度却越来越大且相对稳定。即低收入群体的工资差距较大,但婚育对该差距的解释力度较小,相反高收入群体的性别工资差距较小,但婚育对该差距的贡献却很大。因此,缩小婚姻和生育造成的性别工资差距、消除性别歧视、保障女性职业的可持续发展是亟待解决的问题。     

How do marital status,work effort,and wage rates interact?

How marital status interacts with men's earnings is an important analytic and policy issue, especially in the context of debates in the United States over programs that encourage healthy marriage. This paper generates new findings about the earnings-marriage relationship by estimating the linkages among flows into and out of marriage, work effort, and wage rates. The estimates are based on National Longitudinal Survey of Youth panel data, covering 23 years of marital and labor market outcomes, and control for unobserved heterogeneity. We estimate marriage effects on hours worked (our proxy for work effort) and on wage rates for all men and for black and low-skilled men separately. The estimates reveal that entering marriage raises hours worked quickly and substantially but that marriage's effect on wage rates takes place more slowly while men continue in marriage. Together; the stimulus to hours worked and wage rates generates an 18%-19% increase in earnings, with about one-third to one-half of the marriage earnings premium attributable to higher work effort. At the same time, higher wage rates and hours worked encourage men to marry and to stay married. Thus, being married and having high earnings reinforce each other over time.     

子女数量对已婚女性劳动供给和工资的影响

本文利用中国健康与营养调查数据估计了子女数量对已婚女性劳动供给、工作时间投入和工资水平的影响,并通过采用工具变量法和赫克曼两步法(Heckman two-step)解决了回归分析中子女数量的内生性问题以及工作时间和工资方程中存在的样本选择问题,第一次全面考察了中国城镇和农村已婚女性生育率对其劳动供给行为和工资水平的因果效应。实证分析表明,生育子女数量的增加会显著降低城镇已婚女性的劳动供给,并且显著降低在业女性的工作时间投入和工资水平。生育子女数量的增加对农村已婚女性是否参与非农就业没有显著影响,对参与了非农就业女性的工资也没有显著影响,但是显著降低了其工作时间投入。     

Gender,Parenthood and Wage Differences: The Importance of Time-Consuming Job Characteristics

Using data from the Swedish Level of Living Survey (2000, 2010), we investigate how the gender wage gap varies with occupational prestige and family status and also examine the extent to which this gap is explained by time-consuming working conditions. In addition, we investigate whether there is an association between parenthood, job characteristics and wage (as differentiated by gender). The analyses indicate that there are gender differences regarding prestige-based pay-offs among parents that are partly explained by fathers’ greater access to employment characterized by time-consuming conditions. Separate analyses for men and women demonstrate the presence of a marriage wage premium for both genders, although only men have a parenthood wage premium. This fatherhood premium is however only present in high-prestigious occupations. Compared with childless men, fathers are also more advantaged in terms of access to jobs with time-consuming working conditions, but the wage gap between fathers and childless men is not explained by differences in access to such working conditions.     

Marital status and mortality: The role of health

Prior literature has shown that married men live longer than unmarried men. Possible explanations are that marriage protects its incumbents or that healthier men select themselves into marriage. Protective effects, however, introduce the possibility of adverse selection: Those in poor health have an incentive to marry. In this paper we explore the role of health in explaining mortality and marriage patterns, and distinguish protective effects from two types of selection effects. We find adverse selection on the basis of health (unhealthy men tend to (re)marry sooner) and positive selection on the basis of unmeasured factors that both promote good health and encourage marriage.     

找回家庭：对农村单身现象的再解释——对赣南茶村的大龄未婚男青年的分析

本文延承布迪厄的学术遗产,通过对茶村大龄未婚男青年进行分析后指出,家庭不仅构成了婚姻生活的重要场域,同时亦对婚姻本身产生了重要影响：当婚姻由家族事件变成家庭事件时,它由一个“公共事件”转变成“私密事件”,他人对于族人婚姻的关注与贡献也急剧降低;“家风”作为婚姻市场上的道德要价,对婚姻双方的社区道德和口碑提出了要求;当男青年的家庭结构不完整或经济实力不济,这将使得男性在婚姻市场上无法获得女方的青睐。