单轨车

介绍单轨车的型式、构造、发展简史及实例。     

Systems thinking

Evaluation is one of many fields where “systems thinking” is popular and is said to hold great promise. However, there is disagreement about what constitutes systems thinking. Its meaning is ambiguous, and systems scholars have made diverse and divergent attempts to describe it. Alternative origins include: von Bertalanffy, Aristotle, Lao Tsu or multiple aperiodic “waves.” Some scholars describe it as synonymous with systems sciences (i.e., nonlinear dynamics, complexity, chaos). Others view it as taxonomy—a laundry list of systems approaches. Within so much noise, it is often difficult for evaluators to find the systems thinking signal. Recent work in systems thinking describes it as an emergent property of four simple conceptual patterns (rules). For an evaluator to become a “systems thinker”, he or she need not spend years learning many methods or nonlinear sciences. Instead, with some practice, one can learn to apply these four simple rules to existing evaluation knowledge with transformative results.     

Authority Systems

This is the second of the Paul F. Lazarsfeld Lectures, whichwill be presented annually under the auspices of the Centerfor the Social Sciences of Columbia University, heir to theBureau of Applied Social Research. James S. Coleman's paper,delivered on March 7, 1980, follows upon the first Lecture,given by Hans Zeisel in Philadelphia under the auspices of theCenter for Research on the Acts of Man. From this time forward,the Public Opinion Quarterly plans to ensure continuity of publicationof the annual Lectures in the journal which Paul Lazarsfelddid so much to sustain.     

Expert Systems

Summary

Expert systems are computer programs which embody the expertise of a human expert in order to consult and advise on a specific problem. It is now becoming feasible to apply expert systems technology to problems in the human services. This article describes what expert systems technology is and how it may be applied in human service practice. Finally, some of the promises and pitfalls of this new technology are addressed.     

Design Teams as Learning Systems for Complex Systems Change

Summary

Systems change in child welfare and cross-systems change involving other service sectors are needed in response to two developments: (1) New policy mandates (e.g., TANF, AS FA) and (2) Research on the co-occurring and interlocking needs of many child welfare families. A four-state initiative was structured in response to these needs. Collaborative learning and action research groups called design teams were structured to identify competencies and to develop new service delivery systems. Faculty facilitators representing social work education programs were assigned to these teams and charged with their development and evaluation. Facilitators served as linkage agents for university-communitystate agency partnerships, and they promoted curriculum change. These study reports two sets of findings related to these design teams: (1) Findings from semi-structured interviews of design team members; and (2) Findings from the participatory action research completed by two faculty facilitators. Key themes related to design team processes are presented. Drawing on these emergent themes, components that help explain effective design team processes are identified. Selected implications for social work education programs and faculty also are identified     

Transforming Governmental Systems

Governmental as well as other public systems are facing new challenges due to, among other things, current information technology trends and changes in peoples’ lifestyles. Hence, ideas of web services for the citizens and agencies accessible over the net 24-hours per day are born. However, in order to implement this new type of net-based services a set of accessibility, integrity and security problems and hindrances are to be overcome. Further, the methodological challenges are far from unproblematic. Neither the artefact approach nor the approach of social systems design seems to be directly applicable. Instead, an approach called pragmatic systemics is proposed. At last, organizational transformation is not only a technical problem. Seen in a systemic perspective, the technological changes and the introduction of new artefacts have to be carefully balanced with changes in human competence, organizational structures, and system culture.     

Evolutionary Systems Design

Abstract

This article takes a look at how Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD) may be used as a pragmatic platform for sustainable development initiatives that focus on individual and community empowerment. It begins with a review of ESD as a praxis that draws on General Evolution Theory and Social Systems Design methodology, in addition to Critical Systems Theory, to engage in lifelong learning and human development in partnership with Earth. The origins and foundation of ESD are portrayed as providing the basis for a framework that bridges evolutionary consciousness and evolutionary action. The roots of ESD are traced back to General Evolution Theory on the one hand and to the notions of evolutionary stewardship that grew out of the action-inquiry encounters fostered by the International Systems Institute on the other. It is described how these notions were given operational viability through the methodology of Social Systems Design. Distinctions between growth, development, and evolution are made in order to clarify the principles of sustainability as both a product and a process of ongoing emergence. The fundamental tenets of ESD are presented and discussed by way of a fourstage evolutionary learning framework. Finally, the vehicle of the Evolutionary Learning Community through which ESD operates is shown to embody the potential for individuals and groups to think, live, and act in harmony with the dynamics of which they are a part as a means to guide the conscious creation of sustainability.     

Desktop Expert Systems

Summary

The introduction of commercial exDert systems shells for common desktop computers offers human service agencies a new area of computer application to add to the word processor and the spreadsheet. Expert systems can be used to develop knowledge based applications which automate policy manuals, provide tutorial support in training situations, provide support in decision making situations, etc. Further, the low cost, extensive documentation, and short learning time allow agencies to develop applications unique to their needs or allow individual employees to develop applications that help them with some aspects of their work.     

Developing Expert Systems

Summary

This article provides an overview of the general procedure and steps involved in developing expert systems. The first consideration is to select a suitable problem. Actual development of the expert system begins with formulating and representing the knowledge base. Then a programming tool is selected for use in developing the expert system and a working prototype is developed. After a period of evaluation and reformulation the full expert system is completed. Finally, the performance of the expert system is formally evaluated, final modifications are made, and the expert system is put into everyday use. Additional resources are provided for further reference.     

Working with Larger Systems

Abstract

To be productive citizens, lesbians and gay men must successfully work and live in communities and organizations. Definitions and structures of both gay communities and social communities are changing. In rural areas, gay people often remain socially and geographically isolated. The culture of organizations, which is played out through expected behaviors, makes it difficult for gay people to succeed. Social workers and other human service practitioners must work to empower gay people in order for them to be more socially engaged and successful in living and working in communities and organizations.     

Racism vis-a-vis Biopsychosocial Systems

Abstract

Interdisciplinary teams provide a comprehensive evaluation for children with disabilities and their families and generate appropriate recommendations. Although recommendations are provided with the expectation that the families will follow through and obtain these services for their children and for themselves, it is not clear which recommended services have been obtained by the families. In this four-month follow-up of 36 families, it was found that 84% of educational services, 89% of medical services, and 49% of the social services recommended to the families were obtained. The barriers to families obtaining recommended services are also discussed.     

Multiple Family Therapy Systems

This paper investigates multiple family therapy (MFT), a treatment method which includes several families in a series of sessions with the therapist(s). A brief historical development of MFT is included as well as reports of multiple family therapy groups found in the literature. The characteristics of this treatment method are delineated with special attention to the elements of change attributed to MFT and the stages of development in MFT groups. The role of the therapist and special problems in MFT are also explored. Some implications for research are outlined, indicating that MFT is lacking adequate validation as a treatment modality. Possible advantages inherent in multiple family therapy systems, which have been suggested by therapists' clinical findings, are also reported.