Discouraged vs. added workers: Variation by gender,age, and marital status

This paper analyzes the relationship between aggregate unemployment and the labor force participation of males and females of differing ages and marital circumstances. According to the discouraged-worker effect, a higher unemployment rate causes some workers to leave the labor force leading to a reduction in both the labor-force participation rate and the unemployment rate. To shed light on this statistical incongruity, a unique data set consisting of monthly observations from the Current Population Survey is used to extract the labor force participation rates of males and females of three different age categories and three different marital classifications. Impulse functions from vector error-correction models indicate that discouraged workers are more likely though not exclusively to consist of married males and females between 50 and 65 years of age. No statistically significant evidence of a net added-worker effect is found among married females or males in any age group.     

AUSTRALIAN ATTITUDES TO UNEMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYED PEOPLE

Social security policy towards unemployed people in Australia has become increasingly conditional on their demonstrating ever greater job search effort. The evidence from attitudinal survey data on whether this policy shift accords with public opinion is ambiguous. Although, by international standards, Australians take a relatively hard line on the responsibilities of unemployed people lo actively seek work, there is little information about views on the detail of activity testing. While a majority oppose greater public expenditure on unemployment, they still see an important role, for government in addressing unemployment and supporting unemployed people.     

LONG-TERM UNEMPLOYMENT,EMPLOYMENT ATTITUDES AND MENTAL HEALTH

The effect of long-term unemployment and employment attitudes on mental health of 99 unemployed people in New Zealand were investigated in 1989 and again one year later. Each participant was interviewed in-depth on employment attitudes, and the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale(RSE) together with a demographic questionnaire were administered. The results indicated that the percentage of people who in 1989 wanted employment and of those who were interested in training had decreased within one year, whereas the percentage of people who stated having alternatives to employment increased. The group who felt unable to work stayed the same in size. Good mental health was associated either with re-employment or with those who had alternatives to employment. Poor mental health was evident in those still wanting employment and in those who felt unable to work. The implications of these findings regarding governmental policies are outlined.     

USING BUDGET CONSTRAINTS TO ILLUSTRATE POVERTY TRAPS: THE CASE OF YOUNG PART-TIME WORKERS IN AUSTRALIA

Although much is known about the incidence of unemployment in Australia over the recent past, the causes of unemployment remain controversial. Various explanations have been advanced, some of which focus on the unemployment benefits system. The present study examines the problem of high effective marginal tax rates faced by young social security recipients wishing to engage in part-time employment, and the resultant emergence of so-called ‘poverty traps’. We examine budget constraints for unemployed eighteen year olds, both singles and couples, for part-time employment in four low income occupations; namely, brickie's labourer, public service clerk, stationhand and sales assistant. The results indicate that pervasive disincentive effects exist for young people seeking low wage employment.     

Unemployment insurance in Bulgaria and other East European countries: The transition to a market economy

Unemployment places those it affects in a situation of dependency on unemployment benefits. The regulation of that dependency and the measures necessary to avert it, in Bulgaria (and also in other East European countries) during the period of transition to a market economy, forms the subject of labour and social insurance legislation relating to unemployment and introduced on a temporary basis. Unemployment insurance benefits (unemployment benefits in cash, unemployment assistance, social assistance) are provided for limited periods fixed in the light of the nature of the benefit, the causes of unemployment, the number of years of service, age, gender and other factors. The degree of dependency of unemployed persons on such benefits is also determined by the level of those benefits. The principal categories of legal instruments by which that dependency can be averted or reduced are (1) contributions by the State to the establishment of labour law relationships by providing information to unemployed persons on job vacancies, vocational training and retraining measures, job creation measures and placement; (2) incentives to employers to maintain existing jobs and to create new ones (credits, exemption from interest payments, etc.).     

Labour market integration of unemployed youth from a life course perspective: the case of Norway

The aim of this article is to analyse the labour market integration of previously unemployed youth in a life course perspective. 'Work, Lifestyle and Health' is a longitudinal panel survey following a sample of nearly 2,000 individuals who are representative of the Norwegian cohorts born between 1965 and 1968. The survey was first conducted in 1985 with follow-ups in 1987, 1989, 1993 and again in 2003. Unemployment among young people does not necessarily lead to marginalisation and social exclusion. Long-term effects will be dependent upon how the youths cope with unemployment, the duration of the unemployment period, their mental health status and educational qualifications. Many young unemployed people are not entitled to unemployment benefits because they lack work experience. Consequently, they are dependent on support from their family and/or social assistance. However, there is still much to learn about the long-term consequences of youth unemployment, e.g. whether or not the youths have received social assistance and what are the long-term consequences for their future labour market career and labour market integration.     

The performance of the Australian welfare system in a time of neoliberal economic reform

“Neoliberalism”, both as a body of theory and as a set of policies and practices, is commonly seen as unsympathetic, even antagonistic, to the welfare state. In the period from the mid‐1980s to the global financial crisis of 2007–08, Australia underwent very considerable “neoliberal” economic policy reform. What happened to the Australian welfare system and to Australia's socioeconomic egalitarianism in this period? To shed light on that question three kinds of trend are tracked. The first is household taxes and social expenditure in both cash and kind, using fiscal incidence analysis where the main metric is “net benefits”. The second is economic inequality, as measured by the distribution of incomes and wealth. The third is the performance of the labor market, as measured by earned incomes and unemployment rates. The article concludes with an attempt to integrate the evidence collected from these three sources. The general conclusion is that the Australian welfare system did not follow the pessimists' predictions. The welfare system grew in size and redistributive quantum. Wage levels rose strongly, while unemployment rates fell. Overall, income inequality increased to a small extent, though mainly before the full economic reform process was in place, while wealth inequality changed little.     

Health and welfare of immigrants and access to services in Australia

The main issues in relation to the provision of health and social welfare services for migrants in Australia are: (a) to ensure access and equity; (b) concern about the relatively high proportions of some groups from specific birthplaces requiring support; and (c) the complexity and costs of ethnically specific services. This article focuses on the major pensions and benefits paid by the Department of Social Security, particularly the age pension and unemployment benefit. It also examines the interrelationship between mortality, morbidity, private health insurance, use of health services and the proportions on health-related pensions. Linked with these issues is the debate about an appropriate level of immigration when the unemployment rate is high, as in the current recession, and when new arrivals have little prospect of finding a job. A second major concern is the cost of caring for elderly immigrant parents who have come to Australia under the family reunion program.     

Young and Unemployed

Unemployment can pose particular problems for school leavers and other young people. Some English studies on the effects of unemployment are reviewed, and some of the causes and effects of unemployment among young people in Australia are then discussed. Some suggestions are made for areas in which further research could be carried out.     

Financial hardship during unemployment in Norway: the impact of public and private income support

It is common to assume that long-term unemployment no longer causes financial hardship because of generous welfare benefits. It is further assumed that unemployment benefits have eroded the traditional role of the family in protecting its members against hazards. This panel study of long-term unemployed people in 1991-1992 demonstrates the inadequacy of unemployment benefits and the importance of family support in reducing the risk of financial hardship. Vulnerable household types, such as single people and families with limited economic resources, at the outset seem unable to bear the personal risk of unemployment that is built into the benefit scheme. Persons disadvantaged at the outset risk a downward spiral because of long-term unemployment. Especially during times of high unemployment, the compensation level is not optimal from a welfare point of view. Greater coverage and more generous unemployment benefits may help unemployed people to cope better financially and thus avoid applying for discretionary and highly stigmatized social assistance allowance.     

The effects of poverty on sleep problems in Sweden

Does relative poverty measured as low disposable household income or the presence of personal financial crisis affect health measured in terms of self-reported sleep problems? If so, is this effect modified by macroeconomic conditions or life changes such as unemployment experience, divorce or limiting illness, and it is buffered by social networks or coping behavior such as smoking? These questions are studied on a representative sample of employed people aged 20-65 who participated in the Survey of Living Conditions conducted by Statistics Sweden for the years 1980-1981 (7180 people) and 1986-1989 (13,376 people). The results reveal a conditional relationship between poverty and sleep problems. Among men it is modified, in particular, by previous experience of unemployment. Among women strong social networks buffers the effect but smoking aggravates it. Men's sleep was affected more by poverty and unemployment in the late 1980s than in the earlier period.     

Unemployment,Social Policy and Public Opinion

This paper examines causes of unemployment in Australia as perceived by leaders in government, business and trade unions, and by the workforce. A distinction is drawn between structural explanations which emphasise economic conditions and job shortages, and individualistic explanations which ‘blame the victim’. The results show that government and union leaders give most weight to structural explanations, while business leaders and workforce groups place relatively greater weight on individualistic interpretations. This suggests that attempts to improve policy responses to unemployment may benefit not just by appealing to those who actually make policy decisions, but by attempting to improve the general climate of opinion about unemployment.     

20世纪50年代的妇女解放和男女义务平等：中国城市夫妻的经历与感受

毛泽东时代的妇女解放和男女平等实践在中外学术界引起很大争 议。一方面人们看到共产党运用法律、行政和舆论手段以确保妇女与 男子享有平等的权利和机会,大大缩小了妇女在婚姻、就业和受教育程 度等方面与男子的差距;另一方面也指出上述方面持续存在的种种不 平等以及平等措施后面隐藏的事实上的不平等。1令学者困惑的是,20 世纪50年代,男女在婚姻、就业和受教育程度等差距最大,但是中国妇 女,尤其是城市妇女对妇女解放的认同感却最强(Croll,1995;Rofel,     

Working to get fired? Unemployment benefits and employment duration

In many countries, jobseekers are entitled to unemployment benefits (UBs) only if they have previously worked a minimum period of time. This institutional feature creates a sharp change in the disutility from unemployment at UB eligibility and may distort the duration of jobs. In this paper, we evaluate this eligibility effect using a regression discontinuity approach. Our evidence is based on longitudinal social security data from Portugal, where jobseekers are required to work a relatively long period to collect UBs. We find that monthly transitions from employment to unemployment increase by 10% as soon as the eligibility condition is met. This result is driven entirely by transitions to subsidised unemployment, which increase by 20%, as non-subsidised unemployment is not affected. The effects are even larger for the unemployed with high UB replacement ratios or those who meet the eligibility condition from multiple short employment spells. These transitions deserve greater attention from UB agencies and public employment services.     

Patterns of change in youth unemployment regimes: France and Switzerland compared

The comparison between France and Switzerland enables us to compare a country that has a strong interventionist tradition in the labour market and whose youth unemployment is endemically high with a more liberal country that is faced with a more recent increase in youth unemployment but which, nevertheless, remains relatively measured. Starting from different rules and values, the two youth unemployment systems resemble each other insofar as both exclude most unemployed youth from all available benefits. From this angle, French egalitarianism rejoins Swiss differentialism. In both cases, it is not the least of paradoxes that the system of unemployment insurance so little benefits those who are most vulnerable to the economic crisis and the present dearth of jobs.     

Unemployment and suicide: Panel data analyses

This study uses two panel data sets for both Taiwan and other Asian countries, and employs fixed-effects models to examine the relationship between the unemployment rate and the suicide death rate. The research results in both cases indicate that the suicide death rate moves counter-cyclically with the unemployment rate. At the same time, the death rate for males, those who are older, and those with higher levels of education are relatively high. However, the higher the income, the lower will be the suicide death rate.     

SOCIAL AND FAMILIAL ASPECTS OF ATTEMPTED AND COMPLETED SUICIDE OF YOUNG PEOPLE IN VICTORIA

A prospective study of youth suicide was carried out to determine the causes of the dramatic increase of suicide rates in males 15 to 25 years of age. Comprehensive information was collected through coronial enquiries on all 148 cases of completed youth suicide in Victoria during a 16 month period. Similar data were obtained through in-depth interviews of 105 hospitalised and 101 non-hospitalised attempters. In this paper only social and familial aspects of youth suicide are covered. Whilst the family setting of youth who attempted or completed suicide was similar to that of the general population, a higher proportion were homeless or living alone. Contrary to common assumptions, family relationships were much closer among completed than among attempted suicides. The unemployment rates were not higher than in all young people, and few subjects named unemployment as cause, but a relatively high number of them were neither studying nor looking for work. A high proportion of those who completed suicide had prior contact with the police. In conclusion, social factors do not significantly affect suicidal behaviour in young people.     

Unemployment and economic security for young adults in Finland,Norway and Sweden: From unemployment protection to poverty relief

In this study, we investigated if there has been a displacement in the type and coverage of welfare services available for young unemployed adults in Finland, Norway and Sweden over the last two decades. This question is important because a number of studies have argued that the generous unemployment benefits and extensive labour market intervention found in the Nordic welfare states shield young people from the most severe consequences of economic inactivity. In this article, we instead show that during this period, less generous means‐tested unemployment and social assistance benefits have become the most important form of income protection for young people. In evidence, earnings‐related unemployment benefits now cover only 10 per cent of unemployed Swedes and Finns and 45 per cent of unemployed Norwegians aged 24 years or younger. This development marks a significant change in our understanding of unemployment protection for young people in Nordic countries.     

Unemployment in Poland - causes and remedial measures

This article describes unemployment and labor market policy in Poland after 1989. The analysis is based on official statistics, legislation and Polish social science literature. The unemployment situation in Poland is continually changing. Conclusions drawn by social scientists in 1991 and 1992 no longer give an adequate account of labor market trends in 1995. Steeply rising unemployment is the most traumatic upheaval in post-Communist Polish society. At the end of 1989, the number of people looking for work in Poland was far less than the number of available jobs. But by the end of 1992 there were 62 job-seekers for every job opening, dropping to 56 in September 1994. The social problems associated with unemployment vary from region to region. Women and young people predominate among the unemployed. The Polish government set up a Work Fund in January 1990 to alleviate unemployment. The Work Fund is the first real measure taken to assist the unemployed, but new legislation is needed if it is to become more effective.     

Explaining differences in unemployment benefit takeup between labour migrants and Dutch native workers

The large increase in Eastern European migrants entering the Dutch labour market has led to concerns about their potential claim on Dutch unemployment benefits. We use a decomposition analysis to investigate differences in uptake of unemployment benefits between migrants and native Dutch employees by analysing register data for all employees in the Netherlands in 2015. The results show that Eastern European migrants, similar to other migrants, receive unemployment benefit more often than native Dutch employees. This difference can be largely ascribed to job characteristics. The inclusion of unemployment risk in the analysis reveals that non-working migrants are much less likely to receive unemployment benefits than Dutch natives.