Framing public policy towards a public health paradigm for gambling

This paper examines the public policy value of looking at gambling from a public health perspective. The manner in which social issues are framed will either expand or curtail public policy debates. The existing and traditional frames for gambling (e.g. gambling as a matter of individual freedom, gambling as a form of recreation) fail to consider research on the social and economic impacts of gambling. Because a public health frame offers a broad viewpoint of society, it encompasses a number of social and economic impacts not considered in traditional frames. However, the existing gambling frames enjoy varying degrees of cultural, economic, and political support and, as a result, creating a higher profile for a public health framework will encounter a number of barriers. Research can play a decisive role in overcoming these barriers, as it has in a number of related fields (e.g., tobacco use, addiction and product liability, the epidemiology of AIDS). The paper concludes that research that identifies and quantifies the public health factors of gambling will substantially contribute to a public shift toward a public health frame.     

Techno economic systems and excessive consumption: a political economy of ‘pathological’ gambling

This article argues that gambling is a paradigmatic form of consumption that captures the intensified logic at the heart of late modern capitalist societies. As well as a site of intensified consumption, it claims that gambling has also become the location of what has been described as a new form of ‘social pathology’ related to excess play. Drawing on Castells' (1996) notion of techno‐economic systems, it explores the ways that intersections between technology, capital and states have generated the conditions for this situation, and critiques the unequal distribution of gambling environments that result. It argues that, while the products of these systems are consumed on a global scale, the risks associated with them tend to be articulated in bio‐psychological discourses of ‘pathology’ which are typical of certain types of knowledge that have salience in neo‐liberal societies, and which work to conceal wider structural relationships. We argue that a deeper understanding of the political and cultural economy of gambling environments is necessary, and provide a synoptic overview of the conditions upon which gambling expansion is based. This perspective highlights parallels with the wider global economy of finance capital, as well as the significance of intensified consumption, of which gambling is an exemplary instance. It also reveals the existence of a geo‐political dispersal of ‘harms’, conceived as deteriorations of financial, temporal and social relationships, which disproportionately affect vulnerable social groups. From this, we urge an understanding of commercial gambling based on a critique of the wider social body of gambling environments within techno economic systems, rather than the (flawed) individual bodies within them.     

Exploring the politics and policy surrounding senior center gambling activities

Gambling is a controversial activity that is supported by some but opposed by others for a variety of reasons that are largely ethical, moral, and religious. These issues have been in place a long time and will continue. But gambling has become even more controversial because of the ever-expanding dependence of local and state governments on gambling and gambling-related tax revenue as a source of support for their programs, including senior centers. This dissertation research addresses the politics and policy surrounding the relationship between gambling and senior centers. The results indicate that senior center gambling is on the local agenda of nearly all of the case study communities. A variety of issues relating to senior center gambling was found, including evidence of the negative impact of dependence on gambling-generated revenues for centers and their clientele. These findings have implications for future research and for practice and policy relating to senior center gambling activities. In particular, these findings suggest the need for further investigation of the independent roles of historical, political, and cultural factors in the development of gambling regulations and their respective impacts on the agenda-setting process.     

Learning to gamble: early gambling experiences among young people in Denmark

This article presents results from the first phase of a longitudinal qualitative study of gambling among young people in Denmark. The longitudinal study is designed to capture the trajectories of young gamblers and to explore how social and cultural factors and processes impact on young people's gambling careers. The first stage of analysis places a special emphasis on young people's introduction to gambling and the social contexts of these early gambling experiences. Theoretically, this first study is guided by a symbolic interactionist approach. We conclude that early experiences with gambling are socially mediated and that significant social contexts such as the family and peer groups form important contexts of these early experiences. Our evidence suggest that becoming engaged in gambling is a social process involving a transfer of skills and knowledge in which novices learn how to play and to attribute specific meanings to gambling. Overall, our findings indicate that young people start gambling not because of purely individual characteristics or deviant motivations but through social processes within significant social networks. Implications for prevention and further research are briefly discussed.     

Problem gambling,anxiety and poverty: an examination of the relationship between poor mental health and gambling problems across socio-economic status

Socio-economic status has been shown to be significantly related to both problem gambling and mental health problems. Additionally, forms of psychopathology such as mood and anxiety disorders have been shown to correlate with problem gambling across a variety of settings. However, relatively little research has been conducted examining whether the connection between mood and anxiety disorders and problem gambling is consistent across different levels of socio-economic status. This study examines gambling-related problems among a representative sample of Canadian adults using the 2008 Canadian Community Health Survey (N = 28,271). Generalized linear modelling is used to analyze the data. A moderation effect is found that shows the relationship between anxiety disorders and problem gambling severity varies significantly across socio-economic status. This study shows that social setting has an important influence on the assumed relationship between psychopathology and gambling problems that is downplayed in current problem gambling research. A discussion of the need for greater inclusion of socio-economic context when making assumptions about the connections between problem gambling and psychiatric disorders is made in light of the responsibilities of gambling providers and regulators.     

Meanings of Aboriginal gambling across New South Wales,Australia

A social perspective of gambling explains gambling as a consequence of the social, structural and cultural environment in which gamblers live. In the Australian Indigenous context the social perspective is important, given the significance of community and family ties. This paper aims to explore meanings of Aboriginal gambling across New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Taking an interpretivist stance, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 knowledgeable Indigenous Australians, key elected and nominated state representatives. Meanings of Aboriginal gambling included the collective activity of gambling within social networks in the hope of a win. More problematic meanings of gambling were always gambling to win, chasing losses and continual financial distress which appeared to reduce social network bonds. Contrasting problem gambling with recreational gambling revealed that some Indigenous gamblers use their existing cultural and kin relationships on which many of their social networks are based to gamble together in a controlled recreational manner.     

Gender differences in gambling preferences and problem gambling: a network-level analysis

Most gambling studies have a gender-blind research approach, although a large body of scientific evidence suggests that gambling in females is on the rise and that males and females have different gambling behaviours and experience specific gambling-related harm. This study addressed these gender differences using a network analysis, an innovative approach considering disorders/concepts as dynamic systems of interacting symptoms/items. Data on gambling activities, problem gambling, substance use and mental health were collected in a representative sample of French adult gamblers (n = 8805). The study capitalized on the network analysis directly to compare associations of specific gambling activities with gambling disorder symptoms separately for both genders. The network analysis revealed that problem gambling was strongly associated with gambling machines among females, whereas it was related to sports betting, poker and casino games among males. The networks that included substance use and mental health showed that substance use was related to specific gambling activities. These findings confirm the links between various gender-specific gambling patterns and problem gambling and suggest a need to consider these gender differences to improve prevention efforts. More broadly, the present study further supports the importance of gender differences for gambling research and policy.     

Age and gambling behavior: A declining and shifting pattern of participation

The relationship between age and gambling has received relatively little attention in the social sciences. An aging American population might have a fundamental effect on gambling behavior suggesting that such research is needed. A random telephone survey of 1,011 Iowa residents was conducted. Chronological age was found to be negatively related to gambling behavior in this study. Within this trend, however, people of different ages were also found to be participating in different types of gambling. The general decline in gambling across age categories can be conceptualized as a result of an age decline in experimentation with gambling for self-identity, self-presentation, as well as an historical increase in the social acceptance of gambling. The differential rates of participation in different types of gambling could result from differential needs and resources related to different stages of development and thus age categories.Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the Eighth International Conference on Risk and Gambling in London, England on August 17, 1990 and the 43rd Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America in Boston on November 19, 1990. This research was partially funded by the Iowa Department of Human Services. The authors would like to thank Dan Hoyt, David Huff, Motoko Lee, Henry Lesieur, Mack Shelley, and the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier drafts.     

The social costs and benefits of gambling: an introduction to the economic issues

This paper surveys the range of economic issues that need to be addressed in attempting to evaluate the social costs and benefits of gambling. It considers, inter alia, the nature of private and social costs and benefits and their policy significance, the important distinction between real and pecuniary costs, the incidence of gambling costs and benefits and the sources of gambling costs and benefits. Similarities and differences between the analysis of gambling and alcohol are considered. The paper concludes with a consideration of why various estimates of the social costs of gambling have produced such divergent results.     

Gender,gambling and problem gambling

With data from a 1989 Iowa survey (N=1,011), adult male and female respondents are compared on their problem gambling, its correlates, as well as their gambling behavior. Gambling behavior means its scope, frequency, wagering and leisure time spent at gambling. Women's gambling behavior was lower than that of men, due to their having a narrower scope of gambling behavior, but the genders were not significantly different on frequency, wagering and time spent at gambling. Women and men did not differ significantly on problem gambling. Problem gambling is measured as loss of control over gambling, and consequences due to gambling as well as gambling behavior. Women and men did differ significantly, however, on several predictors of problem gambling. Women's estrangement from a conventional lifestyle and integration into a social world of gambling appeared to help explain their problem gambling. Alcohol consumption appeared to be a more important predictor for men than women. The genders shared the attitude that the odds can be beat as well as being big spenders as predictors of their problem gambling. The results are interpreted with practitioners' efforts to prevent and treat problem gambling in mind.This research was partially supported by the Iowa Department of Human Services and the Na tional Institute of Mental Health (1 RJ01 MH50369-01A1). The authors are grateful to anonymous re viewers and the editor of this journal for many helpful suggestions.     

The ethics of gambling: guidelines for players and commercial providers

Current academic and popular debate on gambling rarely focuses on the ethics of gambling, but concentrates on narrower questions of social impact. This article suggests a philosophical foundation for the ethical provision of gambling services. It argues from a moral realist base while paying close attention to the concrete facts of present policy and practice. The article identifies certain objectively good reasons for gambling. Having established gambling is not wrong per se, it advances generic principles that gamblers and gambling providers should follow in order to act ethically. From these generic principles are derived applied principles from which, in turn, operational norms for actual gambling businesses can be articulated. The article concludes that gambling can be offered and chosen in ethically acceptable ways, but that this will require a major shift in self-conception by the gambling industry.     

Toward a synoptic model of gambling behavior

Most social science explanations emphasize idiosyncratic or psychopathological motivation for gambling behavior. These explanations understate the fundamental significance of conventional social structural and cultural factors in determining the meaning and outcome of human social behavior such as gambling. They also neglect the gradual process by which the individual is socialized into the gambling subculture with its roles, norms, and values and the process by which subculture is internalized eventually as cognitive rules which distinguish the gambler from the nongambler. The synoptic model presented in this paper proposes a process by which gamblers continuously compare their gambling behavior with the cognitive rules with which they define gambling. The degree of consonance gamblers perceive between their own gambling behavior and their cognitive image of the standard gambler determines the gambler's behavior in subsequent gambling events.     

An exploratory study of gambling cross addictions

A growing body of empirical and theoretical research has concentrated on the overlaps and commonalities among chemical and non-chemical (behavioural) addictions. Pathological gambling has perhaps been the most widely researched behavioural addiction and some of this research has concerned the co-existing links between pathological gambling and alcohol/drug addiction in both the gambling substance abuser and the substance abusing gambler (i.e. cross addiction). This study was of an exploratory nature and attempted to gather information and data regarding gambling cross addictions in the UK. To achieve this, 456 letters were sent to all drug and alcohol helping agencies in England requesting such information. This yielded 210 returns (46% response rate). Results indicated that gambling cross addictions occur in both adults and adolescents and were almost exclusively a male condition. However, it must be noted only just over half of the responding agencies had encountered gambling cross addiction and reasons for this are speculated. Results also indicated the existence of various cross addicted subgroups including an adolescent subgroup who were addicted to fruit machines and abused solvents. Future research ideas are also discussed.A more detailed version of this paper is available from the author on request.     

Economic mobility moderates the effect of relative deprivation on financial gambling motives and disordered gambling

This study examined whether a positive association between personal relative deprivation and disordered gambling severity is mediated by the motivation to gamble for financial gain. We hypothesized that this would occur specifically among people who perceived a low personal capacity for upward economic mobility via conventional means of advancement. A sample of community gamblers (N = 196) completed measures of personal relative deprivation, perceptions about upward economic mobility, gambling motivations (financial, coping, enhancement and social) and disordered gambling severity. The predicted moderated mediation model was observed – among people who perceived a low capacity for upward economic mobility, relative deprivation predicted disordered gambling severity via the motivation to gamble for financial gain. This indirect effect did not hold among people who perceived a high capacity for upward mobility. These findings suggest the importance of addressing beliefs about upward economic mobility in gambling prevention and intervention strategies. Among gamblers who feel relatively deprived, it may be advantageous to highlight feasible avenues for upward economic mobility that do not involve gambling.     

Perceived stigma and self-stigma of problem gambling: perspectives of people with gambling problems

Minimal research has investigated the stigma associated with problem gambling, despite its major hindrance to help-seeking and recovery. This study explored perceived stigma and self-stigma to examine stigmatizing beliefs held, how they may be internalized, coping mechanisms, and effects on help-seeking. In-depth interviews with 44 people experiencing gambling problems were analysed using interpretive phenomenology. Results revealed an overwhelming perception that problem gambling attracts acute public stigma and is publicly viewed as caused by personal failings. Participants had serious concerns about being viewed as ‘a problem gambler’, fearing demeaning stereotypes, social rejection, hostile responses and devaluing behaviours. Many participants internalized perceived stigma as self-stigma, with deleterious reported effects on self-esteem, self-efficacy, perceived social worth, and mental and physical health. Deep shame was a near universal emotion and exacerbated by relapse. Secrecy was the main coping mechanism used, with perceived and self-stigma found to act as major barriers to disclosure and help-seeking. The findings can inform the development of a valid understanding and conceptualization of problem gambling stigma. This is a prerequisite for effective stigma-reduction strategies to reduce public stigma and discrimination, and to lower perceived and self-stigma and increase the use of treatment services and other interventions by people with gambling problems.     

A taxonomy of gambling and casino games via social media and online technologies

The increased popularity of casino games on social media platforms has prompted international jurisdictions to consider the extent to which these games may be similar to Internet gambling activities and therefore subject to regulatory action. Gambling themes are popular in video and computer games, and simulated-gambling activities are commonly offered by gambling operators as a way of enticing users to gamble online with money. However, little research has evaluated the impact of the digital convergence of gambling and gaming. The lack of a clear definition of online gambling-themed activities to guide such research undertakings represents a significant hurdle to the fields of gambling and gaming. Based on a review of the extant literature, this article proposes a taxonomy to distinguish between many types of online activities with gambling-themed content. This taxonomy suggests that the principal features that differentiate online gambling games include the requirement for payment, the role of skill, the type of platform and the centrality of the gambling theme. The proposed hierarchical framework aims to promote clear and consistent discussion to guide ongoing investigation of new and emerging Internet gambling and gaming technologies.     

Development and validation of the Chinese adolescent gambling expectancy scale

Gambling expectancies have been reported to be an important variable in adolescents' gambling behaviours. However, little is known regarding the role of gambling expectancies among Chinese adolescents. This study aimed to identify Chinese adolescents' expectancies for gambling and to evaluate their relation to gambling behaviours. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed which confirmed that a five-factor model was a good fit for the data. The five factors – namely, social benefits, relational costs, material gain, being out of control, and money loss – were revealed. The findings demonstrate the importance of understanding gambling behaviours within specific cultural contexts.     

God,family and money: Pacific people and gambling in New Zealand

Pacific people living in New Zealand are less likely to participate in gambling activities than the general population but those who do gamble are at greater risk of being problem gamblers. This difference remains when socio-economic variables are controlled for. To date, little research has investigated the reasons underlying these differences. The present exploratory study investigated Pacific people's thoughts about gambling through a series of focus groups involving 97 participants, including Pacific gamblers, non-gamblers, gambling venue workers, gambling treatment providers and church leaders. The results suggest that some Pacific people draw a distinction between ‘community’ and ‘commercial’ types of gambling, that gambling is understood by some to be an easy way in which to make money, and also that familial and church obligations can motivate gambling behaviour. These findings inform possible unique features of gambling in Pacific cultures in New Zealand and internationally. Moreover, together with the research approach the results inform further research on Pacific peoples' relationship with gambling, as well as those of other cultural groups.     

Like eating money: Card gambling in a Papua New Guinea Highlands village

Card gambling among the Awa, a previously nongambling society, was introduced by returning labor migrants responsible for transplanting many aspects of urban migrant culture back in their rural Highlands villages. Presently Awa card gambling is seasonal and mainly recreational, and not smoothly integrated into their society as a whole. As rural villages like the Awa begin to develop economically, card playing has become less a form of recreation and a more divisive social, economic, and political arena of competition. Card gambling is neither a functional substitute for waning traditional activities, nor a microcosmic mirror of traditional society. It is best seen as a reflection of colonial history and a recent import of urban/plantation culture, which together are shaping a society in the throes of rapid modernization.     

Public opinion towards gambling and gambling regulation in Australia

In recent years, public opinion towards gambling has become a more important factor in shaping public policy. Using a national public opinion survey conducted in Australia in 2011, this paper examines public opinion towards gambling in general and towards the government regulation of gambling in particular. Australia is an important case study because of the internationally high prevalence of gambling among the public, combined with a strong regulatory framework. Public opinion is measured by a reduced form of a scale first developed in Britain. The results confirm the generally negative views that the public holds towards gambling, which have been found internationally. In addition, the Australian public is open to the introduction of further restrictions on gambling. Overall, the public views the liberalization of gambling as having moved as far as most citizens find acceptable; to meet public expectations, future policies need to address more adequately the negative social consequences associated with problem gambling.