Continuity and Change in Grandchildren's Closeness to Grandparents: Consequences of Changing Intergenerational Ties

Drawing on data from Waves 2 and 3 of the National Survey of Families and Households, this study examines whether grandchildren's (N = 496) previous patterns of closeness to grandparents is associated with their current closeness to grandparents and whether changes in parents' intergenerational ties make a difference in the development of grandchildren's closeness to grandparents when grandchildren experience young adulthood. The findings suggest that there is a possibility for both continuity and change in grandchildren's bond to grandparents. Grandchildren's closeness to grandparents was associated not only with their earlier patterns of closeness to grandparents and with parents' concurrent relations with the grandchild and grandparent generations, but also with changes in parents' intergenerational ties over time. Also, the grandchild gender moderated linkages between certain intergenerational ties in the family.     

Intergenerational Influences on Perceptions of Current Relationships with Grandparents

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to investigate inter-generational kinship variables as predictors of perceptions of current grandparent-grandchild relationship quality. A lifecourse perspective is used to demonstrate the need for consideration of the GP-GCH relationship within a three-generational, dynamic framework linking the past and present. Matrifocal kinkeeping, lineage and caregiving history hypotheses are tested in the current study. Responses from a combined sample of 321 young adult grandchildren about their relationships with their parents and all living grandparents provide the basis for the present research. GP-GCH relationship quality is the dependent variable under consideration, which combines perceived emotional closeness and frequency of contact with each of the four possible grandparent types. Independent variables tested include caregiving by grandparents during childhood, young adults' current relationship quality with mothers and fathers, and mothers' and fathers' relationships with parents and in-laws, as appropriate. Using stepwise multiple regression, GP-GCH relationship quality is predicted by a history of caregiving for the grandchild by the grandparent in question, as well as direct lineage connections, with mothers' relationships with their children and parents influencing grandchildren's relationships with maternal grandparents, and fathers' relationships with their parents and children showing similar patterns for grandchildren's relationships with paternal grandparents. The present data provide support for lineage and caregiving history hypotheses rather than matrifocal kinkeeping as predictors of intergenerational kinship patterns.     

Family Contingencies Across the Generations: Grandparent‐Grandchild Relationships in Holistic Perspective

Family relationships do not occur in isolation but rather are embedded within greater systems of family ties. In recognition of the need to study families holistically, we explore how relations between grandparents and grandchildren are contingent upon a matrix of intergenerational relationships. Using data from the Iowa Youth and Families Project, our analyses focus on person‐centered types of grandparent‐grandchild relationships and the legacy of social ties across the generations, as mediated by other family relationships. We find multiple dimensions of grandparents' involvement with their grandchildren to be associated with (a) whether the grandparents knew their own grandparents when they were young, (b) the grandparent's perceptions of contact and closeness with the target grandchild, and (c) nuances in the relationships of grandparents with the parent generation.     

Intergenerational Relationships and Affectual Solidarity Between Grandparents and Young Adults

This study examines whether both parents’ relationships with their offspring, parents, and parents‐in‐law matter for young adults’ perceptions of closeness to grandparents. This study focuses on two groups of grandchildren (ages 18 – 23) in Wave 2 of the National Survey of Families and Households: young adults with married biological parents (N = 442) and those whose biological mother is not married to their biological father (N = 399). Findings suggest that it is important to examine grandparent‐grandchild ties within a complete kinship network. Parents’ relationships with the grandchild and grandparent generations were associated with the grandparent‐grandchild bond. In support of the kinkeeping perspective, mothers’ intergenerational ties across lineage lines appeared to be more influential for grandparent‐grandchild relationships than fathers’.     

Impact of Genetic Relatedness and Emotional Closeness on Intergenerational Relations

Both emotional closeness and genetic relatedness are known to influence helping behavior between family generations, yet few studies have explored them together. The authors investigated the associations between (a) parenthood and perceived emotional closeness toward own parents and parents‐in‐law and (b) emotional closeness and receiving child care from grandparents across and within lineage lines. The data include information on the 8 dyads of possible parent–grandparent relations from a nationally representative survey of young adults in Finland (born 1962–1990, sample N = 1,216). The results show that parenthood was associated with women's emotional closeness to their own mothers and men's emotional closeness to their parents‐in‐law. Maternal grandmothers provided the most grandchild care. After controlling for emotional closeness, the difference in child care provision between one's own mother and one's mother‐in‐law disappeared for women but was accentuated in men. Thus, emotional closeness shapes intergenerational relations differently for kin and in‐laws.     

Relational Trajectories from Parent and Child to Grandparent and New Parent

This qualitative study follows earlier research of new parents (Dun & Sangster, 2013) to explore grandparents’ understanding of communication with their adult children during the arrival of a new generation. In semistructured interviews, 29 grandparents described positive and negative interactions with a child (or child-in-law). Participants graphed changes in the intergenerational relationship with the first-time parents, from the moment the pregnancy was announced through their interview, when the grandchild was up to two years of age. Inductive analysis showed four trajectories, which we describe in detail using informants’ reports. Highlighting the volatility of the transition from a parent and child to grandparent and new parent, the most common patterns were Turbulent and Dipped, and the results include variants of these two trajectories. We compare grandparents’ retrospectively recalled experiences with the reports of new parents from previous research to facilitate a deeper understanding of intergenerational relationships during a highly unsettled transition.     

Relationships between grandchildren and grandparents in skipped generation families in Thailand

Grandchildren are sometimes left in the care of their grandparents when parents migrate to find work. Using open-ended interviews with 48 grandparents, this study examines intergenerational relationships in “skipped generation households” in rural Thailand. The qualitative analyses identified several ways in which intergenerational relationships were characterized by solidarity (i.e., emotional closeness, instrumental helping, and financial assistance) as well as conflict (i.e., financial tension, grandchildren’s misbehavior, role confusion). These findings have important implications for practitioners and policymakers that could improve intergenerational relationships in skipped generation households.     

Backup Parents,Playmates, Friends: Grandparents' Time With Grandchildren

Grandparents play varied roles in their grandchildren's lives. Prior work has focused mostly on historical trends in and implications of grandparent coresidence and has not considered more broadly how grandparents and grandchildren interact. Using time‐use diary data for 6,762 person‐years from the 1997 to 2007 waves of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics Child Development Survey, the authors examine patterns in the amount and activity composition of time American children spent with their grandparents, differentiated by family structure, adult employment, and child's age. Results showed that although only about 7% of children lived with their grandparents, many more children spent time with their grandparents: about 50% of young children, 35% of elementary‐age children, and 20% of teens spent at least some time with their grandparents in a typical week. This suggests that grandparents play a variety of roles in their grandchildren's lives, depending on the amount and kinds of support needed.     

Grandparents,kinship ties,and belonging after migration: the perspective of second‐generation grandchildren

In this article, I investigate the roles of grandparents for second‐generation immigrants who live with their parents in a different country from their grandparents. I draw on in‐depth interviews with second‐generation Vietnamese immigrants living in the Czech Republic, where they are very often raised by Czech caregivers. The carers and the children are joined through the process of caregiving and become grandmothers and grandchildren to each other. The analysis focuses on how the interviewees make sense of, interpret, and understand their roles as grandchildren vis‐à‐vis their Czech and Vietnamese grandmothers. It shows how, after migration, the kinship ties are performed, negotiated, and reproduced on a micro level of everyday life, with tasks of caring, homeland visits, and a transnational/face‐to‐face maintenance of intimacy. The article concludes that grandparents play an important role in the grandchildren's sense of belonging both to their family kin and to the homeland.     

Affectionate Communication Is Associated With Emotional and Relational Resources in the Grandparent-Grandchild Relationship

Grounded in affection exchange theory (AET; Floyd, 2006), this study examined the extent to which affection received from grandparents is associated with grandchildren’s perceptions of their grandparents and their grandparent-grandchild relationship (in the form of emotional closeness, shared family identity, and perceived availability of social support). Young adult grandchildren (N = 171) completed several instruments in reference to their relationship with a specific grandparent. The results of multiple regression analyses generally supported the hypotheses that received affection is associated positively with grandchildren’s perceptions of their grandparents and their grandparent-grandchild relationship. These findings support AET’s utility in the grandparent-grandchild relationship and the notion that grandparents often influence their grandchildren’s perceptions of their family.     

When grandchildren grow up: Role transition and family solidarity among baby boomer grandchildren and their grandparents

Research on grandchild-grandparent relationships has largely focused on juvenile and adolescent grandchildren. However, this research examines the connection between adolescent-to-adult role transition by grandchildren, and perceptions of intergenerational solidarity with their grandparents. What are the effects of grandchildren's changing employment, marital, and family status on family solidarity with grandparents? Using OLS multiple regression analysis, pooled data from five waves of the University of Southern California Longitudinal Study of Generations spanning 23 years between 1971–1994 are constructed into a subsample consisting of 3,210 grandchild person-intervals. The model of role transition across the life course suggests a negative relationship between adult role acquisition and intergenerational solidarity. However, the data are not consistent with the role transition hypothesis. Rather, the effects of adult role transition are dynamic. In other words, role acquisition did not necessarily lead to declines in family cohesion; nor did role loss always result in greater family solidarity. The findings indicate that overall, adult role transitions are stronger predictors of grandchildrens' solidarity with grandfathers, than with grandmothers.     

A Cross-Cultural Examination of Family Communication Patterns,Parent-Child Closeness,and Conflict Styles in the United States,China, and Saudi Arabia

The current study was designed to examine the impacts of family communication patterns (FCP), relational closeness, and culture on adult children’s conflict styles with their parents. Participants (N = 594) from the United States, China, and Saudi Arabia completed self-report questionnaires that included questions about their family’s conversation and conformity orientations, relational closeness, and their conflict styles with their parents. The results show that conversation orientation is a positive predictor of collaboration and compromise, conformity orientation is a positive predictor of accommodation and avoidance, and relational closeness is a negative predictor of dominance across cultures. Relational closeness also interacts with conversation orientation to influence dominance. The cross-cultural invariance provides empirical evidence of the universal application of FCP in family conflict communication. More importantly, significant interactions between culture and conformity orientation and closeness show that culture’s influence on family communication is better understood through indirect rather than direct roles.     

Grandparent-Headed Families in the United States

Abstract

Grandparents are returning to the role of parents in ever-increasing numbers. Custodial grandparents often find themselves isolated from sources of support as they face unique emotional, physical, and financial challenges on a daily basis. Nearly half are grandparents without partners and the majority are caring for two or more young children. Children in the care of grandparents are more likely to experience cognitive, emotional, and physical challenges. Their early traumatic experiences may lead to difficulties in communication and forming attachments.

The Parent Topics Questionnaire is a standardized assessment measure designed to provide parent education group facilitators with specific information about needs, desires, and expectations of participants. Administration of this instrument to four parent groups revealed a high readiness for information among the custodial grandparent population. Based on information obtained from this measure, a holistic program was developed which simultaneously provided services to care-giving grandparents, their young grandchildren, and educational professionals.

Grandparent and grandchildren's groups met weekly and emphasized topics and activities aimed at meeting common needs within these populations. Educational professionals participated in a series of inservice meetings aimed at increasing awareness of needs and strengths of grandparent-headed families, modifying curriculum to more effectively meet grandchildren's needs, and enhancing knowledge of existing resources. Pre- and post-test analysis demonstrate significant positive effects for all involved populations. Grandparents were found to increase in parenting knowledge, perceived levels of social support, willingness to utilize existing resources, and enjoyment of time with their grandchildren. Levels of isolation and perceived depression were decreased. Participating grandchildren demonstrated increased abilities to interact effectively with peers and adults and perceived their interactions with grandparents more positively. Educational professionals reported feeling more informed about custodial grandparent family issues, more confident about interacting with grandparents, and more knowledgeable about existing resources.     

Intergenerational Relationships and Union Stability in Fragile Families

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Well being Study (N= 2,656), we examined the association between intergenerational relationships and parents' union stability five years after a baby's birth. Results showed that more amiable relationships between parents and each partner's parents, and more time children spent with paternal grandparents, were associated with increased odds that parents were co-residing by the time their focal child was age five. More time that children spent with maternal grandparents reduced union stability, although this result was not robust to methods that better address selection. These findings underscore the importance of the broader social contexts affecting couple stability. Findings further suggest that even amidst changing demographic conditions, intergenerational family ties are important for couples-and by extension-their children.     

Maternal Punitive Reactions to Children's Negative Emotions and Young Adult Trait Anger: Effect of Gender and Emotional Closeness

The current study tested whether young adult's recollected reports of their mother's punitive reactions to their negative emotions in childhood predicted anger expression in young adulthood and whether emotional closeness weakens this association. Further, a three-way interaction was tested to examine whether emotional closeness is a stronger protective factor for young women than for young men. Results revealed a significant three-way interaction (gender × emotional closeness × maternal punitive reactions). For young men, maternal punitive reactions to negative emotions were directly associated with increased anger expressions. Maternal punitive reactions to young women's negative emotions in childhood were associated with increased anger in adulthood only when they reported low maternal emotional closeness. Findings suggest that maternal emotional closeness may serve as a buffer against the negative effects of maternal punitive reactions for women's anger expression in young adulthood.     

“Grandpa was fatally administered by the Bulgarians1”: Family narratives,national identity,and state history

Grandparents’ World War Two (WWII) stories are emotionally powerful, intimate accounts of firsthand experience that can shape grandchildren's ideas of state history, nation, and identity. This effect, I argue, manifests most intensively in critical times when national history and identity are threatened. Such was the case when former Macedonian Prime Minister Zoran Zaev relayed a controversial version of Macedonian national history and identity in a TV interview. In reaction, many Macedonian citizens shared fragments of their grandparents’ WWII stories. This study analyzes several more detailed versions of these grandparents’ narratives in order to ascertain the formative power of family WWII stories over one's personal sense of national identity. To do so, it will examine the positioning practices of the present-day narrators, the grandchildren of WWII participants, focusing on the manners in which they interactively reproduce their own sense of national identity vis-a-vis-these stories.     

Parental Housing Assistance and Parent‐Child Proximity in Italy

Many studies of intergenerational exchanges include parent‐child proximity as an exogenous explanatory variable. Proximity may itself be a consequence of intergenerational resource flows, however. We analyze patterns of economic transfers between generations and their relationship to parent‐child proximity in Italy. Parental support for a child's home purchase may influence the child's choice of location, whether to facilitate parent‐child contacts, grandchild care, or parent care. We examine the situation of married couples, focusing on housing help received and the association of that help with proximity to each spouse's parents. Using 1998 survey data and multinomial logistic regression models, we find that past housing assistance has a significant effect on current proximity to each spouse's parents, controlling for parents' survival, family composition, and other factors.     

First‐generation migrants become grandparents: how migration backgrounds affect intergenerational relationships

First‐generation migrants are not only reaching the age of retirement, but they are also becoming grandparents in the host society. Through the specific case of Portuguese migrants in Luxembourg, we look at what point their migration background becomes important to their intergenerational relationships. We have acquired the data for this article from biographical narrative interviews with ten older first‐generation grandparents and ten second‐generation parents. On the basis of these findings, we address three important aspects of intergenerational relations: (i) how first‐generation migrants socialize their grandchildren, (ii) grandparental mobility patterns and their embeddedness in practices of socialization and care, and (iii) the challenges produced by language in intergenerational relationships.     

Grandparents and Their Adult Grandchildren: Recurring Themes From the Literature

ABSTRACT

Research on relationships between adult grandchildren and their grandparents is summarized to examine what is known about this neglected research topic. Viewed from a life span perspective, this review provides information concerning grandparent–adult grandchild interaction patterns, proximity, emotional closeness, and social support and the influence of grandparents on the mental health of adult grandchildren. Also considered is the influence of gender, ethnicity, affinal versus consanguine ties, and divorce on the relationship. Implications of the findings for researchers and family practitioners are discussed.     

Extending the Intergenerational Stake Hypothesis: Evidence of an Intra‐individual Stake and Implications for Well‐being

The intergenerational stake hypothesis suggests that parents are more invested in their children and experience better quality parent–child ties than do their children. In this study the authors examined variation in reports of relationship quality regarding parents and children intra‐individually (do people report better quality ties with their children than with their parents?) and whether within‐person variations have implications for well‐being. Participants age 40–60 (N = 633) reported on their relationship quality (importance, positive quality, and negative quality) with their parents and adult children. Individuals reported their relationships with children were more important and more negative than relationships with parents. Individuals with feelings that were in the opposite direction of the intergenerational stake hypothesis (i.e., greater investment in parents than children) reported poorer well‐being. The findings provide support for the intergenerational stake hypothesis with regard to within‐person variations in investment and show that negative relationship quality may coincide with greater feelings of investment.